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# Skilled Motorcyclist Association

Responsible, Trained and Educated Riders

## Sitemaps

- [XML Sitemap](https://smarter-usa.org/sitemap.xml): Contains all public & indexable URLs for this website.

## Posts

- [NTSB 2013 Most Wanted List: The truth regarding motorcyclist safety. ](https://smarter-usa.org/ntsb-2013-most-wanted-list-the-truth-regarding-motorcyclist-safety/) - A news release explains why motorcyclist safety was not included in the 2013 top ten transportation challenges identified by the NTSB.
- [SMARTER presents at Michigan 2023 Traffic Safety Summit](https://smarter-usa.org/smarter-presents-at-michigan-2023-traffic-safety-summit/) - SMARTER presented a breakout workshop session titled Wind in my Hair - The Cost of Going Without a Motorcycle helmet. The session provided a look at the Michigan motorcyclist crash and fatality data for the ten-year period following the repeal of the Michigan all-rider motorcycle helmet requirement, the economic cost associated with the repeal and
- [SMARTER Board Elects New Members, as Two Iconic Board Members Step Down](https://smarter-usa.org/smarter-board-elects-new-members-as-two-iconic-board-members-step-down/) - The Skilled Motorcyclist Association - Responsible, Trained, and Educated Riders (SMARTER) Board of Directors has approved Ken Conden of “Riding in the Zone” and Larry Crowe, formerly of the New Hampshire Rider Education Program, to join the Board. The Board also re-elected Deanna Ward-Foy, a Motorcycle Safety Foundation Certified Rider Coach Trainer, for another term.
- [Motorcycle Helmet Repeal Linked to 26% Rise in Crash-related Hospital Costs](https://smarter-usa.org/motorcycle-helmet-repeal-linked-to-26-rise-in-crash-related-hospital-costs/) - Rising costs from motorcycle crashes could affect trauma center stability as public dollars cover millions in preventable spending, study suggests. This is the content of a news release from the Department of Communications at Michigan Medicine of March 5, 2026.
- [Dr. Don Green, SMARTER Vice-Chair Presents at National Conference](https://smarter-usa.org/dr-don-green-smarter-vice-chair-presents-at-national-conference/) - SMARTER Board of Directors Vice-Chairman Dr. Don Green presented a workshop titled Challenge and Support - The Difference in Success at the State Motorcycle Safety Association (SMSA) National Training Summit held September 10 – 13, 2025 in Harrisburg, PA. Dr. Green’s presentation explored the Sanford Theory of “Challenge and Support" which emphasizes achieving a balance
- [Dr. Green Selected SMSA 2025 Outstanding Individual Member](https://smarter-usa.org/dr-green-selected-smsa-2025-outstanding-individual-member/) - SMARTER is proud to have Dr. Green as part of our leadership team and congratulate him on this outstanding achievement. Details of his nomination and award are contained in this news release.
- [Filtering, Sharing and Splitting: Oh My!](https://smarter-usa.org/filtering-sharing-and-splitting-oh-my/) - This is the PowerPoint of SMARTER Board Member Rita Murphy Lybek who was a featured presenter at the Texas Motorcycle Safety Forum held May 3 in Austin Texas. Rita presented research on the topic and facilitated participate discussion including defining terms, identifying claimed advantages and potential risks. A video of this presentation is available at:
- [McDonald Presents at AAMVA Regional Workshop in Utah](https://smarter-usa.org/mcdonald-presents-at-aamva-regional-workshop-in-utah/) - SMARTER Board of Directors Secretary, Justin McDonald presented the workshop Improving the Safety of Your Motorcyclists: What Can Driver's Licensing Bodies Do? on March 12th, 2025 at the American Association of Motor Vehicle Administrators (AAMVA) Regional Workshop in Salt Lake City, Utah. Justin is the Nevada Rider Motorcycle Safety Program Administrator with the Nevada Department of
- [SMARTER Board Member Participates in State Motorcycle Safety Assessment Program](https://smarter-usa.org/smarter-board-member-participates-in-state-motorcycle-safety-assessment-program/) - Dr. Donald L. Green, Vice Chairperson of the SMARTER Board, was selected to participate in a state assessment and serve as a subject matter expert for the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) state assessment program.
- [SMARTER Board Member Presents at Michigan Traffic Safety Summit](https://smarter-usa.org/smarter-board-member-presents-at-michigan-traffic-safety-summit/) - SMARTER Board Member, Dr. Dan Petterson, presented a breakout session at the 2025 Michigan Traffic Safety Summit. Hosted by the Michigan Office of Highway Safety Planning, the Summit was held March 4 and 5 in Grand Rapids, MI and was attended by approximately 450 Michigan traffic safety professionals. Petterson’s presentation was titled “Michigan Motorcyclist Safety,
- [Dr. Xu Simon Elected SMARTER President and CEO](https://smarter-usa.org/dr-xu-simon-elected-smarter-president-and-ceo/)
- [Motorcycling in a Safe System: How do we get there?](https://smarter-usa.org/motorcycling-in-a-safe-system-how-do-we-get-there/) - This is a PDF of the PowerPoint by Eric Teoh, Director of Statistical Services with the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) in his presentation to the Michigan Motorcycle Safety Action Team October, 2024. The presentation reviews the four simple steps that would reduce motorcyclist deaths if we would only take them, as outlined in
- [RiderCoach/Instructor Lifecycle Model: Underpinnings for Success](https://smarter-usa.org/ridercoach-instructor-lifecycle-model-underpinnings-for-success/) - This is a PDF of the PowerPoint presentation by SMARTER board members Donald Green, Ed.D. at the State Motorcycle Safety Association National Training Summit, Denver CO, September 2024. The model shares how individuals can become more productive, engaged, and have higher performance in any job, at every level. Go further in careers, generate more revenue
- [Putting Helmets on Heads](https://smarter-usa.org/putting-helmets-on-heads/) - This is a PDF of the PowerPoint presentation by SMARTER board members DeAnna Ward, Justin McDonald and Xu Simon, Ph.D. at the State Motorcycle Safety Association National Training Summit, Denver CO, September 2024. This presentation provides research and fact-based overview of helmet history, types, testing and standards, injury types, economics and cultural considerations.
- [Countermeasures That Work: Proven Interventions That Improve Motorcyclist Safety.](https://smarter-usa.org/countermeasures-that-work-proven-interventions-that-improve-motorcyclist-safety/) - This is a PDF of the PowerPoint by SMARTER Vice-Chair, Xu Simon, Ph.D. at the State Motorcycle Safety Association National Training Summit, Denver CO, September 2024. This presentation addresses the issues around helping motorcyclist safety advocates meet the objective of using data-driven decision making to prioritize high impact countermeasures so that they can make the
- [2024 – The Human Cost of Unhelmeted Motorcyclists – IIHS News Release](https://smarter-usa.org/2024-the-human-cost-of-unhelmeted-motorcyclists-iihs-news-release/) - 2024 IIHS News Release - The Human Cost of Unhelmeted Motorcyclists More than 20,000 motorcyclists who died in crashes in the U.S. since the mid-1970s would have survived if stronger helmet laws had been in place, a new study from the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety shows. If every state had required all riders to
- [August 1, 2024 MSF eNews: Christy LaCurelle Selected as President and Chief Executive Officer of MIC, MSF, SVIA, and ROHVA.](https://smarter-usa.org/august-1-2024-msf-enews-christy-lacurelle-selected-as-president-and-chief-executive-officer-of-mic-msf-svia-and-rohva/) - The independent boards of the Motorcycle Industry Council, Motorcycle Safety Foundation, Specialty Vehicle Institute of America, and the Recreational Off-Highway Vehicle Association voted to select Christy LaCurelle as President and Chief Executive Officer of all four powersports associations, representing stakeholders across the industry.
- [Oklahoma RiderCoach Education Conference](https://smarter-usa.org/oklahoma-ridercoach-education-conference/) - SMARTER representative a featured presenter at the Oklahoma RiderCoach Education Conference held at the Chickasaw Bricktown Ball Park
- [Few Small SUV's Excel in New IIHS Front Crash Prevention Test](https://smarter-usa.org/few-small-suvs-excel-in-new-iihs-front-crash-prevention-test/) - The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety is updating its vehicle-to-vehicle front crash prevention test to address crashes that occur at higher speeds and those in which the struck vehicle is a motorcycle or large truck. Only one of the first 10 small SUVs evaluated earns a good rating.
- [SMARTER presents workshop Looking Twice Isn’t Enough: a look at the root causes of motorcyclist crashes](https://smarter-usa.org/smarter-presents-workshop-looking-twice-isnt-enough-a-look-at-the-root-causes-of-motorcyclist-crashes/) - SMARTER presents workshop Looking Twice Isn’t Enough: a look at the root causes of motorcyclist crashes at the 2024 Michigan Traffic Safety Summit held March 12 & 13. This is an edited version of the presentation slides of DeAnna Ward, SMARTER treasurer, RiderCoach Trainer and Co-Chairman of the Michigan Motorcyclist Safety Action Team.
- [](https://smarter-usa.org/illinois-in-the-middle-of-the-road-nationally-on-traffic-safety/) - Illinois in the Middle of the Road Nationally on Traffic Safety This is a December 5, 2023 article in the Chicago Sun Times in response to the “middle of the road” rating the state received by Advocated for Highway and Auto Safety 2024 Roadmap to Safety. Illinois lacks an all-rider motorcycle helmet requirement. The reporter
- [It’s Past Time to Require ABS on All Motorcycles](https://smarter-usa.org/its-past-time-to-require-abs-on-all-motorcycles/) - The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) and Highway Loss Data Institute (HLDI) have filed a second petition with federal regulators for a mandate for antilock braking systems (ABS) on all new motorcycles. The evidence in support of ABS has become even stronger since the first IIHS-HLDI petition. In the most recent IIHS study of
- [SMARTER Presents Workshop on Inattentional Blindness at 2023 SMSA National Training Summit.](https://smarter-usa.org/smarter-presents-workshop-on-inattentional-blindness-at-2023-smsa-national-training-summit/) - SMARTER President Dan Petterson, Ed.D. presented a workshop session titled Inattentional Blindness: what drivers can do to avoid the Looked But Failed to See crash with motorcyclists at the national conference of the State Motorcycle Safety Association held in Columbus, OH September 13-16. Blocked vision, inattentional blindness, saccadic masking, motion camouflage and size-arrival effect all come into
- [SMARTER Presents Workshop on Ride-along Factors at 2023 SMSA National Training Summit.](https://smarter-usa.org/smarter-presents-workshop-on-ride-along-factors-at-2023-smsa-national-training-summit/) - SMARTER Board Vice-Chairperson Xu Simon, Ph.D. and President Dan Petterson, Ed.D. co-presented a session titled Fatal Motorcyclist Crashes - A Look at Ride-along Factors at the national conference of the State Motorcycle Safety Association held in Columbus, OH September 13-16. A number of factors are regularly associated with fatal motorcyclists’ crashes. The term “ride-along” has
- [Banned! Texas Lane Splitting Is Now Officially Illegal.](https://smarter-usa.org/banned-texas-lane-splitting-is-now-officially-illegal/) - Article by Justin Hughes published online in Adventure Rider. Formerly a gray area, HB 4122 explicitly prohibits it.
- [Simple steps could reduce motorcyclist deaths - if only we’d take them.](https://smarter-usa.org/simple-steps-could-reduce-motorcyclist-deaths-if-only-wed-take-them/) - Article by Eric Teoh, Director of Statistical Services, IIHS. August 24, 2023
- [SMARTER President presents workshop at National SMSA Training Summit](https://smarter-usa.org/smarter-president-presents-workshop-at-national-smsa-training-summit/) - This is the PowerPoint presentation Dr. Petterson used during his workshop presentation September 16, 2022. Understanding the four chances for error and the associated visual phenomena is helpful in furthering our understanding of the Looked But Failed to See (LBFTS) Right-of-Way Violation (ROWV) motorcyclist/car collision scenario. Knowing these four chances for error, and the associated
- [Preventing Motorcycle Rider Deaths](https://smarter-usa.org/preventing-motorcycle-rider-deaths/) - This is a "My View" article published in the Holland (Michigan) Sentinel.
- [Motorcyclists are hospitalized or dying on a daily basis: What is Michigan doing wrong?](https://smarter-usa.org/motorcyclists-are-hospitalized-or-dying-on-a-daily-basis-what-is-michigan-doing-wrong/) - A news report from the Holland (Michigan) Sentinel. SMARTER CEO Dan Petterson quoted and SMARTER developed crash and fatality data and charts used as a resource.
- [Reminders from the Michigan State Police to Help Prevent Motorcycle Deaths](https://smarter-usa.org/reminders-from-the-michigan-state-police-to-help-prevent-motorcycle-deaths/) - A report on Northern Michigan TV 9 & 10 where SMARTER was cited as the source for the data.
- [Remembering and honoring Donald L. Smith, Ph.D.](https://smarter-usa.org/remembering-and-honoring-donald-l-smith-ph-d/) - This is a special edition of Riding Smart, the SMARTER member newsletter. Dr. Don Smith, Professor Emeritus Michigan State University died on November 8, 2021. He was 93-years-old. Don had a 50-year career of service to the Michigan highway traffic and motorcyclist safety communities. He was the driving force behind the creation and 2007 incorporation
- [SMARTER Receives Award](https://smarter-usa.org/smarter-received-award/) - SMARTER is recognized by the Michigan Governor’s Traffic Safety Advisory Commission (GTSAC). SMARTER was presented the Richard H. Austin Award for long-term contributions and commitment to traffic safety at a virtual awards ceremony held May 27, 2021. President Petterson makes Award Acceptance Comments.
- [SMARTER Reaches Out to State Rider Education Coordinators](https://smarter-usa.org/smarter-reaches-out-to-state-rider-education-coordinators/) - SMARTER sends the Jan.-Feb 2021 Riding Smart to all rider education state coordinators. This edition of our member newsletter contains a large section summarizing some of the major research topic areas. Read our Cover Letter.
- [SMARTER Opposes Maryland SB 712 - Helmet Repeal](https://smarter-usa.org/smarter-opposes-maryland-sb-712-helmet-repeal/) - SMARTER submits written testimony in opposition to Maryland all-rider helmet repeal - Maryland Written Testimony
- [SMARTER Opposes Nebraska LB 581 - Helmet Repeal](https://smarter-usa.org/smarter-opposed-nebraska-lb-581-helmet-repeal/) - SMARTER partners with Advocates for Highway and Auto Safety in opposition to repeal of Nebraska all-rider helmet requirement LB 581
- [Collision Between Pickup Truck with Trailer and Group of Motorcycles, Randolph, New Hampshire, June 21, 2019.](https://smarter-usa.org/collision-between-pickup-truck-with-trailer-and-group-of-motorcycles-randolph-new-hampshire-june-21-2019/) - This is a synopsis from the NTSB’s report and does not include the Board’s rationale for the conclusions, probable cause, and safety recommendations. The final report and pertinent safety recommendation letters will be distributed to recommendation recipients as soon as possible.
- [Online Cornering Course Gets Boost in Motorcycling World](https://smarter-usa.org/online-cornering-course-gets-boost-in-motorcycling-world/) - News release from Cornering Confidence announcing collaboration with BMW MOA.
- [The Road Warrior – Rich Henrion, SMARTER Board Chairman](https://smarter-usa.org/the-road-warrior-rich-henrion-smarter-board-chairman/) - Norway, Michigan resident Rich Henrion is the runner up in the 2019 BMW Motorcycle Owners of America North America Mileage contest with 50,136 miles. He was national numero uno in 2018 with 45,680 miles and sixteenth in the nation and first in Michigan in 2017. All total he has logged more than 147,649 miles in
- [Uneasy Riders](https://smarter-usa.org/uneasy-riders/) - A digest of MLive's series on motorcycle crashes in Michigan and how the project was carried out. Included is a “daily debate” between Dan Petterson and Vince Consiglio. Consiglio is president of ABATE of Michigan, the main organization in the fight to lift Michigan's mandatory helmet law. Petterson is president of the pro-helmet group SMARTER,
- [Motorcyclist Safety is Top Concern for Locally-based Organization](https://smarter-usa.org/motorcyclist-safety-is-top-concern-for-locally-based-organization/) - Interview with SMARTER’s CEO Dan Petterson
- [2017 Countermeasures That Work - Ch. # 5, Motorcyclist Safety](https://smarter-usa.org/2017-countermeasures-that-work-ch-5-motorcyclist-safety-2/) - National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Easy to read summaries of the research related to nine strategies in four categories. Each strategy is rated on effectiveness, cost, use and time to implement.
- [2017 Countermeasures That Work - Ch. # 5, Motorcyclist Safety](https://smarter-usa.org/2017-countermeasures-that-work-ch-5-motorcyclist-safety/) - National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Easy to read summaries of the research related to nine strategies in four categories. Each strategy is rated on effectiveness, cost, use and time to implement.
- [Summary of Michigan Motorcyclist Crash Data 2009 - 2018](https://smarter-usa.org/summary-of-michigan-motorcyclist-crash-data-2009-2018/) - A PowerPoint presentation by SMARTER President Dan Petterson at the June 2019 meeting of the Michigan Motorcycle Safety Action Team based on Traffic Crash Reporting System, Criminal Justice Information Center, Motorcycle Helmet Traffic Crash Statistics. Data for date range of January 1 to December 31 for the years 2009-2018. Data provided on May 15, 2019.
- [SMARTER presents at SMSA National Training Summit](https://smarter-usa.org/smarter-presents-at-smsa-national-training-summit/) - This is a SMARTER PowerPoint presentation at the 2019 State Motorcycle Safety Administrators (SMSA) conference held September 12-14 in Grand Rapids, MI. The information presented in the workshop is counter-intuitive and challenges our common assumptions; however, the ideas are rooted in the available research. The belief that traditional rider training, motorist awareness communication campaigns and
- [SMARTER presents at the 2019 Lifesavers Conference](https://smarter-usa.org/smarter-presents-at-the-2019-lifesavers-conference/) - This document is the handout prepared for participants who attend the Lifesavers National Conference on Highway Safety Priorities workshop titled Effective Solutions for Improving Motorcyclist Safety. Lifesavers is the premier U.S. highway safety conference with over 2,000 participants. SMARTER was requested by the motorcyclist safety conference planners to present at this prestigious event.
- [Henrion Wins Mileage Contest](https://smarter-usa.org/2408-2/) - SMARTER Board of Directors Chairman Rich Henrion has been announced as the 2018 BMW Motorcycle Owners of America National North American Mileage contest winner.
- [NTSB Issues 2019-2020 Most Wanted List of Transportation Safety Improvements](https://smarter-usa.org/ntsb-issues-2019-2020-most-wanted-list-of-transportation-safety-improvements/) - The National Transportation Safety Board announced its 2019 – 2020 Most Wanted List of Transportation Safety Improvements, during an event held at the National Press Club, Monday. First issued in 1990, the NTSB Most Wanted List of Transportation Safety Improvements serves as the agency’s primary advocacy tool to help save lives, prevent injuries, and reduce
- [Arizona Motorcyclists Must Wear a Helmet or Pay Fee Not to](https://smarter-usa.org/arizona-motorcyclists-must-wear-a-helmet-or-pay-fee-not-to/) - HB 2246, or the working title “motorcycle riders; helmets; fees” bill, proposes all motorcyclists and passengers operating an “all-terrain vehicle or motor driven cycle” must wear a helmet at all times while operating the vehicle. However, those who do not wish to wear a helmet can be exempt from the proposed requirement if they pay
- [Looked But Failed to See Motorcyclist Right of Way Violation Caused Crashes](https://smarter-usa.org/looked-but-failed-to-see-motorcyclist-right-of-way-violation-caused-crashes/) - This is a PowerPoint presentation by SMARTER President Dan Petterson at the January 17, 2019 Michigan Motorcycle Safety Action Team, a subcommittee of the Michigan Governor’s Highway Traffic Safety Commission. Based on Petterson’s review of the research, the presentation looks at the extent of the LBFTS ROWV problem, identifies main causes indicated by the research,
- [NTSB Motorcycle Safety Report](https://smarter-usa.org/ntsb-motorcycle-safety-report/) - October 2, 2018. The National Transportation Safety Board on October 2, 2018, released a Safety Study, Select Risk Factors Associated with Causes of Motorcycle Crashes. The report analyzed select risk factors associated with the causes of motorcycle crashes and evaluated strategies for crash prevention. The NTSB makes recommendations to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration,
- [2018 - Lives and Costs Saved by Motorcycle Helmets in 2016](https://smarter-usa.org/2018-lives-and-costs-saved-by-motorcycle-helmets-in-2016-2/) - This is a Traffic Safety Facts Research Note released in May 2018 based on crash data from 2016. In 2016 the use of motorcycle helmets saved an estimated 1,859 lives – if all riders had worn helmets and additional 802 lives could have been saved. Nearly $3.4 billion in economic costs and $21 billion in
- [Motorcycle Helmet Use in 2017 – Overall Results](https://smarter-usa.org/motorcycle-helmet-use-in-2017-overall-results/) - This is a Traffic Safety Facts Research Note released in April 2018 that shows that the use of DOT compliant motorcycle helmets was not statistically different in 2017 from 2016 and remains at about 65%. Helmet use in states requiring all riders to wear helmets has increased to 87%.
- [2018 - Lives and Costs Saved by Motorcycle Helmets in 2016](https://smarter-usa.org/2018-lives-and-costs-saved-by-motorcycle-helmets-in-2016/) - This is a Traffic Safety Facts Research Note released in May 2018 based on crash data from 2016. In 2016 the use of motorcycle helmets saved an estimated 1,859 lives – if all riders had worn helmets and additional 802 lives could have been saved. Nearly $3.4 billion in economic costs and $21 billion in
- [Motorcyclist Traffic Fatalities by State:  2017 Preliminary Data](https://smarter-usa.org/motorcyclist-traffic-fatalities-by-state-2017-preliminary-data/) - A report from the Governors Highway Safety Association. The report projects that 4,990 people were killed on motorcycles in 2017. This number, based on preliminary data provided by State Highway Safety Offices (SHSOs), represents a projected 5.6% decrease from 2016 – a difference of 296 lives. In spite of this reduction, motorcyclists remain significantly over-represented
- [New Data Finds Motorcyclist Fatalities Down 5.6% in 2017](https://smarter-usa.org/new-data-finds-motorcyclist-fatalities-down-5-6-in-2017/) - A May 2, 2018 news release from the Governors Highway Safety Association (GHSA) announcing the 2017 Preliminary Data Report. While fatalities are down, motorcyclists remain over-represented in traffic deaths.
- [Data shows increased fatality rate since helmet repeal](https://smarter-usa.org/data-shows-increased-fatality-rate-since-helmet-repeal/) - An edited version of this article was published in the March 27, 2018 Ludington Daily News. The article summarizes the Michigan Traffic Crash Reporting System data which shows an increase in the Michigan motorcyclist fatality rate post helmet law repeal and the increased risk non-helmeted riders take when they choose to ride without a helmet.
- [2018 - “Motorcycle Helmets and Cervical Spine Injuries: a 5-year Experience at a Level 1 Trauma Center.](https://smarter-usa.org/2018-motorcycle-helmets-and-cervical-spine-injuries-a-5-year-experience-at-a-level-1-trauma-center/) - In this study, the authors investigate the association of helmet use with the incidence and severity of cervical spine injury. The results of this study demonstrate that motorcycle helmet use does not increase the risk of CSI. In addition, the results provide further evidence that helmet use should be implemented to reduce traumatic brain injury,
- [Why drivers may fail to see motorcycles in plain sight](https://smarter-usa.org/why-drivers-may-fail-to-see-motorcycles-in-plain-sight/) - January 5, 2018 - Link to an article in ScienceDaily describing a research report which examines how the phenomenon of inattentional blindness, or a person's failure to notice an unexpected object located in plain sight, might explain the prevalence of looked-but-failed-to-see (LBFTS) crashes, the most common type of collision involving motorcycles.
- [Helmet use associated with reduced risk of cervical spine injury during motorcycle crashes](https://smarter-usa.org/helmet-use-associated-with-reduced-risk-of-cervical-spine-injury-during-motorcycle-crashes/) - March 6, 2018 – Link to an article describing research from the University of Wisconsin Hospitals and Clinics in Madison which found that, during an accident, helmet use lowers the likelihood of cervical spine injury (CSI), particularly fractures of the cervical vertebrae.
- [Estimate of Reduction in Deaths, Injuries, and Societal Costs in 2015 Michigan Motorcycle Crashes with Helmet Use](https://smarter-usa.org/estimate-of-reduction-in-deaths-injuries-and-societal-costs-in-2015-michigan-motorcycle-crashes-with-helmet-use/) - March 9, 2018 – A report completed by Lidia P. Kostyniuk, Ph.D, P.E., Research Scientist, Emerita with the University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute calculating the reduction in monetary costs and deaths that would have been prevented in Michigan in 2015 if all riders involved in crashes would have worn a helmet.
- [Motorcycle Helmet Law Repeal Costs Lives and Millions of Dollars](https://smarter-usa.org/motorcycle-helmet-law-repeal-costs-lives-and-millions-of-dollars/) - March 9, 2018 – News article as published in the Ludington Daily News highlighting a recent report titled Estimate of Reduction in Deaths, Injuries, and Societal Costs in 2015 Michigan Motorcycle Crashes with Helmet Use which concludes “If helmets had been worn by all the crash-involved motorcyclists in 2015, monetary costs of motorcycle crashes would
- [What is the Motorcycle Advisory Council and how will it affect us?](https://smarter-usa.org/what-is-the-motorcycle-advisory-council-and-how-will-it-affect-us/) - December 20, 2017 – Link to a RevZilla Common Thread article by Mark Gardiner. An excellent review of the first meeting of the Motorcycle Advisory Council and general motorcyclist safety issues.
- [No easy ride: Motorcycle industry is in deep trouble and needs help fast, panel agrees](https://smarter-usa.org/no-easy-ride-motorcycle-industry-is-in-deep-trouble-and-needs-help-fast-panel-agrees/) - December 14, 2017 - Link to a Los Angeles Times article. A group of two dozen concerned motorcycle veterans has published a comprehensive research document that addresses the question, “Can this industry be saved?”
- [Give a Shift - Roundtable Discussion.](https://smarter-usa.org/give-a-shift-roundtable-discussion/) - December 5, 2017 - This is the full report of the Give a Shift (GAS) discussion, an anonymous & public discourse on the future of motorcycling (see the December 14, 2017 LA Times news article.
- [2015 – “Can a Boxer Engine Reduce Leg Injuries Among Motorcyclists? Analysis of Injury Distributions in Crashes Involving Different Motorcycles Fitted with Antilock”](https://smarter-usa.org/2015-can-a-boxer-engine-reduce-leg-injuries-among-motorcyclists-analysis-of-injury-distributions-in-crashes-involving-different-motorcycles-fitted-with-antilock/) - The overall motorcycle design can vary across different categories and manufacturers. For instance, some motorcycles are equipped with boxer-twin engines; that is, with protruding cylinder heads. A previous study based on a limited material has suggested that these could provide some leg protection; therefore, the aim of this research was to analyze injury distributions in
- [Pro-helmet activists are notching wins against motorcyclists shouting ‘freedom’.](https://smarter-usa.org/pro-helmet-activists-are-notching-wins-against-motorcyclists-shouting-freedom/) - Link to an article in STAT, a national publication focused on finding and telling compelling stories about health, medicine, and scientific discovery. For two decades, the riders — and their rallying cry of freedom — have often had the upper hand in these battles. Now, though, the public health advocates are gaining traction as more
- [Summary of Michigan Motorcyclist Crash Data](https://smarter-usa.org/summary-of-michigan-motorcyclist-crash-data/) - Summary of Michigan Motorcyclist Crash Data with a focus on the five year periods prior to and after the repeal of Michigan’s all-rider helmet law. A PowerPoint presentation prepared by SMARTER President Dan Petterson and presented at the June, 2017 meeting of the Michigan Lakeshore Traffic Safety committee. Also includes a summary of five research studies examining the
- [The Price We Have Paid for a Small Freedom (to ride a motorcycle without a helmet).](https://smarter-usa.org/the-price-we-have-paid-for-a-small-freedom-to-ride-a-motorcycle-without-a-helmet/) - The report provides Michigan motorcyclist crash data for 2016 and also for each year back to 2012, when Michigan representatives and senators voted and Governor Snyder supported the repeal of Michigan’s all-rider motorcycle helmet law. The data and the research studies support the readily available national and international research which shows helmets use works to
- [The Tragic Consequences of Motorcycle Helmet Law Repeal: Five Michigan Specific Research Studies](https://smarter-usa.org/the-tragic-consequences-of-motorcycle-helmet-law-repeal-five-michigan-specific-research-studies/) - A summary of five Michigan specific research reports which substantiate the negative consequences of repealing the Michigan all-rider helmet law. A version of this article was published as a guest in the Michigan Auto Law Blog.
- [Q&A: CDC, U.S. Congressman Tim Walberg, and the AMA.](https://smarter-usa.org/qa-cdc-u-s-congressman-tim-walberg-and-the-ama/) - A SMARTER-prepared document to provide the motorcycling community with complete information regarding Walberg’s questions
- [Statement of SMARTER President Dan Petterson.](https://smarter-usa.org/statement-of-smarter-president-dan-petterson/) - A statement by Dan Petterson, an invitee to the January 22 press event sponsored by the Advocates for Highway and Auto Safety at the National Press Club, Washington, D.C., on the release of the 2014 Roadmap of State Highway Safety Laws, urging lawmakers to support essential lifesaving all-rider helmet laws.
- [SMARTER's Letter to CDC Director Frieden.](https://smarter-usa.org/smarters-letter-to-cdc-director-frieden/) - An advisory letter stating that responsible motorcyclists and the professionals involved in the fight to save lives and prevent or reduce the seriousness of injuries need all the help available.
- [One Year Post Repeal: Where Do We Go From Here?](https://smarter-usa.org/one-year-post-repeal-where-do-we-go-from-here/) - A news release from which excerpted comments were made by SMARTER at the April 10, 2013, news conference held at the Michigan Capitol by leading members of the Head First Coalition.
- [Motorcyclist Organizations Differ Over Recent Government Agency Announcements.](https://smarter-usa.org/motorcyclist-organizations-differ-over-recent-government-agency-announcements/) - A news release cautions motorcyclists to consider source and motive before using information to make potentially life-altering decisions about riding safety.
- [Senators Announce Formation of Motorcycle Caucus.](https://smarter-usa.org/senators-announce-formation-of-motorcycle-caucus/) - Link to a news release announcement from U.S. Senators Joni Ernst (R-IA) and Gary Peters (D-MI) regarding he formation of the first-ever Motorcycle Caucus in the United States Senate.
- [Does the Senate really need a Motorcycle Caucus?](https://smarter-usa.org/does-the-senate-really-need-a-motorcycle-caucus/) - Link to an editorial by The Des Moines Register. A caucus is simply a group of senators or representatives who meet occasionally, usually to pursue common legislative objectives. Some are ideologically focused and tend to be partisan, but others are based on topics of personal interest to members. The Senate caucuses are more informal than
- [Community Preventive Services Task Force Recommendations.](https://smarter-usa.org/community-preventive-services-task-force-recommendations/) - The finding and rationale statement of an independent, nonfederal, unpaid panel of public health and prevention experts appointed by the director of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention whose evidence-based finding is that “universal helmet laws increase helmet use; decrease motorcycle-related fatal and non-fatal injuries; and are substantially more effective than no law or

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## Stories

- [Rear Ended by a Jeep](https://smarter-usa.org/story/rear-ended-by-a-jeep/) - Rear ended by a Jeep "ATGATT saved my life! Since I can speak with the firsthand knowledge based on experience, I want to share that experience with others."
- [Quality Gear Reduces Melissa's Injuries](https://smarter-usa.org/story/quality-care-reduces-melissas-injuries/) - Van driver violates Melissa's right-of-way In Columbus, Ohio, on May 19, 2015 while riding my motorcycle home from a doctor's appointment, I was involved in an accident (about two miles from my home). I was riding southbound on Cleveland Ave. The speed limit there is 45mph. When approaching the intersection at Lauralwood, I noticed a
- [Helmets Save U.P. Couple](https://smarter-usa.org/story/helmets-save-up-couple/) - Motorcyclists Hit Deer in Michigan's Upper Peninsula Full-face helmets save motorcyclists' lives after colliding with deer My first awareness was of spitting into gravel inches from my face and being rather smug that there wasn’t any blood in it. I pushed myself up to my knees, noticing that one of my gloves was torn and
- [Randy's Quality Gear vs. Deer](https://smarter-usa.org/story/randys-quality-gear-vs-deer/) - Wearing Quality Gear Helps When Motorcyclist Collides With Deer A Presentation by Randy Klifman to the Michigan Motorcycle Safety Committee My name is Randy Klifman, and I AM HAPPY TO BE HERE. I have been riding motorcycles for almost 40 years. Like many motorcyclists, I was not concerned with the use of safety equipment; but
- [Novelty Helmet Fails Lon](https://smarter-usa.org/story/novelty-helmet-fails-lon/) - Dot-Certified Helmet Is Better Choice Than Novelty Helmet Lon describes his experience wearing a novelty helmet I am going to attempt to detail my experience and subsequent recovery as a result of a motorcycle crash on October 8, 2003. I can only classify the entire experience as miserable. Physically, I recovered quickly; mentally, it has
- [Jim's Tips to Avoid Deer](https://smarter-usa.org/story/jims-tips-to-avoid-deer/) - Full-face Helmet and All the Gear Help Motorcyclist Survive Deer Crash Tips to Prevent a Deer Crash and Ways to Protect Yourself in the Event of a Crash It was a long, slow, no-emergency ride that was, in a way, reassuring to me and the family members I was calling. I went into my local
- [Gear Shortens Caryn's Rehab](https://smarter-usa.org/story/gear-shortens-caryns-rehab/) - Protective Gear Saves Caryn's Life and Shortens Rehab Motorcycle-specific gear does its job when motorist violates rider's right of way My name is Caryn Dolores Myers, and wearing motorcycle safety gear saved my life last summer. It was June 15th, 2007, at 11:30 P.M., and I was riding my motorcycle to work. As I crested
- [Helmet Saves David's Son](https://smarter-usa.org/story/helmet-saves-davids-son/) - Motorist Violates Motorcyclist's Right of Way Helmet saves David's son after car stops and then pulls into his son's path My son had just moved to Des Moines from our home in Pella, Iowa. On May 19, 2004, at 6:14 P M, I was driving my pickup, loaded with my son’s belongings, while he was

## Studies

- [2026 – “Safeguarding Vulnerable Road Users - Summary Report of PRIME Road Trials - 2023 to 2025”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2026-safeguarding-vulnerable-road-users-summary-report-of-prime-road-trials-2023-to-2025/) - In this phase 2 of the research, innovative road markings for motorcyclists, designed as Perceptual Rider Information for Maximising Expertise and Enjoyment (PRIMEs) were installed on the approach to demanding bends at a total of 18 trial sites (13 new trial sites plus 5 sites used in previous years’ research) and two comparison sites across
- [2023 – “Safeguarding Vulnerable Road Users: Summary Report of PRIME Road Trials 2020-2022"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2023-safeguarding-vulnerable-road-users-summary-report-of-prime-road-trials-2020-2023/) - Innovative road markings for motorcyclists, designed as Perceptual Rider Information for Maximising Expertise and Enjoyment (PRIMEs) were installed on the approach to demanding bends at 22 trial sites and two comparison sites across the West Highlands of Scotland. These road markings were presented as a series of ‘gateways’ to encourage safer riding. Significant reductions in
- [2025 - "Evaluating a New Road Sign and Traffic Markings for Motorcycle Safety on Untreated Roads"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2025-evaluating-a-new-road-sign-and-traffic-markings-for-motorcycle-safety-on-untreated-roads/) - This research, conducted by Transport Scotland, investigated effects for ne traffic markings on the user behavior of motorcycle riders. A road sign and traffic markings were installed at six trial sites. At fie sites speed was reduced by a significant margin. At four sites there were significant improvements in road position at the final traffic
- [2024 - "Safety in Rural Curves"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2024-safety-in-rural-curves/) - This is a summary and link to a presentation regarding innovative road markings for motorcyclists’ research conducted by the Austrian Road Safety Board (KFV). The presentation was at the International Motorcycle Safety Conference, November 25, 2024. The KFV research team developed a new type of optically conductive road marking, which was used in 2019 in
- [2023 - "Motorcycle Rider Perceptual Countermeasures"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2023-motorcycle-rider-perceptual-countermeasures/) - This is an abstract of a research report conducted by Austroads, the association of the Australian and New Zealand transport agencies. The report details a trial conducted to evaluate whether a suitable road-based perceptual countermeasure (PCM) could influence the travelling speed as well as lane position of motorcyclists to induce a safe curve negotiation. The
- [2008 - "Evaluation of Perceptual Countermeasures for Motorcyclists Stages 1 and 2 Final Report"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2008-evaluation-of-perceptual-countermeasures-for-motorcyclists-stages-1-and-2-final-report/) - This project, by Monash University, Accident Research Centre, Melbourne, Australia evaluated the effects of two types of perceptual countermeasure treatments on motorcycle speed and lane position. A controlled before after design was used to compare speed and lane position before treatment installation with two periods after treatment installation. Overall, the treatments produced significant net speed
- [2012 - Motorcycle Crashes into Road Barriers: the Role of Stability and Different Types of Barriers for Injury](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-motorcycle-crashes-into-road-barriers-the-role-of-stability-and-different-types-of-barriers-for-injury/) - This research focused on motorcycle crashes into road barriers and addressed two research questions: the first to assess if injury risk for motorcyclists is affected by collisions with different types of barriers, and the second, to examine if injury outcome in these crashes can be affected by being in an upright position during the collision. Police‐reported motorcycle
- [2011 - "Motorcycle Protective Clothing: Protection from Injury or Just the Weather?"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-motorcycle-protective-clothing-protection-from-injury-or-just-the-weather/) - Detail of the study examining the effectiveness of specialized motorcycle protective clothing, particularly fitted body armor. Here is YouTube video of the lead researcher explaining the study. Be sure to return to SMARTR after watching the video.
- [2018 - "Road Riding Hazardous Situations for Motorcycles"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-road-riding-hazardous-situations-for-motorcycles/) - The decrease of road accidents these recent years has induced the interest to work on road driving hazardous situations called incidents. Otherwise, in France, users of Power Two-Wheeler (PTW) are less than 2% of traffic but, in the accidents represent 43% of serious injuries and 23% of killed persons. This paper provided a descriptive analysis
- [2015 – “A Behavioral Comparison for Riders When Driving a Motorcycle or a Car Structural Equation Modeling Study”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-a-behavioral-comparison-for-riders-when-driving-a-motorcycle-or-a-car-structural-equation-modeling-study/) - A driver behavior questionnaire study was conducted with a population that both rides and drives. Items in the questionnaires were used to develop a structural equation model with two factors, one for the motorcyclist's behavior, and the other for the car driver's behavior. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were also applied in this study. Results
- [2012 - "A Simulator Study Investigating How Motorcyclists Approach Side-road Hazards"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-a-simulator-study-investigating-how-motorcyclists-approach-side-road-hazards/) - The most common form of motorcycle collision in the UK occurs when another road user fails to give way and pulls out from a side road in front of an oncoming motorcyclist. While research has considered these collisions from the car driver’s perspective, no research to date has addressed how motorcyclists approach these potential hazards.
- [2021 – “Addressing the Motorcyclist Advisory Council Recommendations: Synthesis on Roadway Geometry, Pavement Design, and Pavement Construction and Maintenance Practices”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2021-addressing-the-motorcyclist-advisory-council-recommendations-synthesis-on-roadway-geometry-pavement-design-and-pavement-construction-and-maintenance-practices/) - Roadway geometry, pavement design, and pavement construction and maintenance practices are designed to construct and maintain roadway facilities that provide for motor vehicle travel. Typical practices focus on passenger car or truck needs and may not specifically recognize the special needs of motorcycles. This synthesis highlighted the general recent history of motorcycle specific safety research
- [2025 - "NHTSA National Motorcycle Safety Resource Guide"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2025-nhtsa-national-motorcycle-safety-resource-guide/) - The National Motorcycle Safety Resource Guide is a comprehensive, multi‑year NHTSA publication that outlines strategies, programs, and resources to improve motorcycle safety across the United States. It is designed for state and local agencies, law enforcement, educators, and the public, and is updated periodically to reflect the latest research, best practices, and policy priorities.
- [2026 – “Roadmap to Safety”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2026-roadmap-to-safety/) - This is a comprehensive annual report by Advocates for Highway and Auto Safety (published 12/2025) assessing the state of safety on our nation’s roads. Based on government and private research, crash data and state experience, Advocates has determined the traffic safety laws that are critical to reducing motor vehicle deaths and injuries. States are rated
- [2021 - "Synthesis on Barrier Design for Motorcyclist Safety"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2021-synthesis-on-barrier-design-for-motorcyclist-safety/) - The purpose of roadside barrier systems is to reduce the severity of injuries and number of fatalities by controlling and mitigating crash forces. While barrier systems have been designed and proven to be beneficial for motor vehicles they do not currently address the problems associated with motorcyclist crashes. This synthesis of research presented in this
- [2026 - "Smart Helmet Detection System Using Deep Learning and Computer Vision"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2026-smart-helmet-detection-system-using-deep-learning-and-computer-vision/) - This project proposed a Smart Helmet Detection System using Deep Learning and Computer Vision to automatically detect whether a two-wheeler rider is wearing a helmet or not. The system analyses images and video streams captured from traffic surveillance cameras. The model is trained on a custom dataset containing riders with and without helmets under different
- [2023 – “Characterization of Motorcycle Encroachments in the US”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2023-characterization-of-motorcycle-encroachments-in-the-us/) - In 2020, there were 5,579 motorcyclist fatalities in the US, which is the highest on record. Despite accounting for only 3% of registered vehicles, motorcycles are involved in 42% of fatal guardrail impacts. Roadside safety hardware testing guidelines are outlined in the Manual for Assessing Safety Hardware (MASH) for passenger vehicles and large trucks but
- [2026 – “A Multimodal Data Framework for Motorcyclist Injury Severity on Rural Undivided Roads”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2026-a-multimodal-data-framework-for-motorcyclist-injury-severity-on-rural-undivided-roads/) - Motorcycle crashes on rural undivided roads remain a significant safety concern due to the high incidence of severe injuries and fatalities. This study analyzes a comprehensive dataset of 12,753 motorcycle crashes from rural undivided roads in Texas. The findings indicate that severe and fatal motorcycle injuries on rural undivided roads are primarily driven by high-speed
- [2018 – “Use of the Safety Factor and Margin of Safety in Motorcyclist Accident Risk Management”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-use-of-the-safety-factor-and-margin-of-safety-in-motorcyclist-accident-risk-management/) - Deceleration rate, time to collision and impact speed have been commonly employed as accident risk indicators. This study focused on the determination of measurable risk indicators which could be used to assess accident risk level and to determine more appropriate accident risk management strategies by using the descriptive qualitative approach. The data were collected from
- [2018 – “Use of the Safety Factor and Margin of Safety in Motorcyclist Accident Risk Management”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-use-of-the-safety-factor-and-margin-of-safety-in-motorcyclist-accident-risk-management-2/) - Deceleration rate, time to collision and impact speed have been commonly employed as accident risk indicators. This study focused on the determination of measurable risk indicators which could be used to assess accident risk level and to determine more appropriate accident risk management strategies by using the descriptive qualitative approach. The data were collected from
- [2026 - “Downstream Medical Cost of Repealing Universal Motorcycle Helmet Laws”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2026-downstream-medical-cost-of-repealing-universal-motorcycle-helmet-laws/) - While repeal of universal motorcycle helmet laws has been linked to increased crash-related morbidity, prior work evaluating the impact of repeal on crash-related costs is primarily limited to pre-post differences that neglect to account for underlying temporal trends. This research sought to evaluate the impact of universal motorcycle helmet law repeal on crash-related costs using
- [2022- “Applicability Assessment of Active Safety Systems for Motorcycles Using Population-Based Crash Data. A Cross-Country Comparison among Australia, Italy, and USA.”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2022-applicability-assessment-of-active-safety-systems-for-motorcycles-using-population-based-crash-data-a-cross-country-comparison-among-australia-italy-and-usa/) - This study compared the applicability of five active safety systems for PTWs in Australia, Italy, and the US using real-world crash data from each region. The researchers considered antilock braking systems (ABS), motorcycle autonomous emergency braking (MAEB), collision warning, curve warning, and curve assist. The new proposed approach aimed to determine which systems have the
- [2023 – “The Motorcycle Rider Behaviour Questionnaire as a Predictor of Crashes -A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2023-the-motorcycle-rider-behaviour-questionnaire-as-a-predictor-of-crashes-a-systematic-review-and-meta-analysis/) - The aim of the present review was to analyze the overall predictive ability of the Motorcycle Rider Behaviour Questionnaire (MRBQ) regarding self-reported crashes. Therefore, the study examined the relationship between MRBQ factors (traffic error, control error, speed violation, and usage of safety equipment) and self-reported crashes using meta-analysis. The implications of the study lie in
- [2015 – “Effects of Size on Collision Perception -Theoretical and Practical”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-effects-of-size-on-collision-perception-theoretical-and-practical/) - This research highlights the importance of considering multiple sources of visual information in collision perception. The study found that people tend to perceive a large fast approaching object as hitting them sooner than a small near object. This effect has been termed size-arrival effect and can result in collisions, such as those between motorcyclists and
- [2019 – “Federal Highway Traffic Safety Policies – Impacts and Opportunities”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2019-federal-highway-traffic-safety-policies-impacts-and-opportunities/) - The role of driver behavior versus vehicle design, road design, and traffic management in improving highway safety is a subject of debate. This report focuses primarily on the driver behavior aspect of highway safety. Congress has played a role in improving highway safety. Making road travel safer was one of the responsibilities Congress gave to
- [2023 – “The Development of Motorcycle Accident Models Based on Riders’ Characters”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2023-the-development-of-motorcycle-accident-models-based-on-riders-characters/) - Different individuals may behave differently towards certain situations, leading to accidents. This study aims to model the relationship between the riders’ personalities, riding performance, and the probability of being involved in an accident. These results indicate the need to research road safety that is differentiated by sex and its characteristics based on it.
- [2011 – “A Study of Motorcycle Rider Braking Control Behavior”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-a-study-of-motorcycle-rider-braking-control-behavior/) - This document reports a study wherein a motorcycle riding simulator was used to study how non-expert motorcycle riders use conventional brakes in emergency braking situations. Braking behavior data were obtained from recordings of rider control inputs, motorcycle response, and interactions with other vehicles. There were no cases where the rider-subject used only the rear brake,
- [2003 – “A Behavioral Comparison between Motorcyclists and a Matched Group of Non-motorcycling Car Drivers: Factors Influencing Accident Risk](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2003-a-behavioral-comparison-between-motorcyclists-and-a-matched-group-of-non-motorcycling-car-drivers-factors-influencing-accident-risk-2/) - Motorcyclists and a matched group of non-motorcycling car drivers were assessed on behavioral measures known to relate to accident involvement. Using a range of laboratory measures, we found that motorcyclists chose faster speeds than the car drivers, overtook more, and pulled into smaller gaps in traffic, though they did not travel any closer to the
- [2015 – “Relationships Between Motorcyclists’ Behavioural Perceptions and Their Actual Behaviour”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-relationships-between-motorcyclists-behavioural-perceptions-and-their-actual-behaviour/) - The paper deals with studying the relationships between the motorcyclists’ thinking about proper behaviour and their actual behaviour in the traffic. The impact of some control variables, such as riders’ age, experience, driving history, and engine cubature, on actual behaviour, is also addressed here. The results show that the higher awareness about alcohol danger and
- [2019 - “Impact of Riders’ Lifestyle on Their Risky Behavior and Road Traffic Accident Risk”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2019-impact-of-riders-lifestyle-on-their-risky-behavior-and-road-traffic-accident-risk/) - The main aim of the study was to determine how lifestyle dimensions of male motorcyclists influence the risky behavior of motorcyclists and their involvement in traffic accidents. Life style variables such as Motorcycle as a hobby, Aggressiveness, Motorcycle addiction, and Alcohol and drugs were positively correlated with Rule violations and speeding. Similar relations we found with second
- [2023 – “Modeling the Motorcycle Crash Severity on Nonintersection Urban Roadways in the Australian State of Victoria Using a Random Parameters Logit Model”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2023-modeling-the-motorcycle-crash-severity-on-nonintersection-urban-roadways-in-the-australian-state-of-victoria-using-a-random-parameters-logit-model/) - While considerable research on intersections and their influence on the severity of motorcycle crashes has been conducted, there are limited studies on motorcycle crashes on nonintersection roadways. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the factors contributing to motorcycle crash severity on Victorian nonintersection urban roadways while considering the heterogeneity of factors. The study model results
- [2019 -"Rider, Motorcycle and Trip-related Factors Associated with Motorcycle injury Crash Risk in Victoria, Australia"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2029-rider-motorcycle-and-trip-related-factors-associated-with-motorcycle-injury-crash-risk-in-victoria-australia/) - This study aimed to investigate risk factors associated with serious injury motorcycle crashes in Victoria, Australia. Cases were adult riders admitted to hospital following a recent motorcycle crash on a public road. Controls were adult riders observed passing a recent case crash site. All participating riders completed a structured questionnaire. Analysis identified rider, motorcycle, and
- [2022 – “Influence of Road Safety Barriers on the Severity of Motorcyclist Injuries in Horizontal Curves”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2022-influence-of-road-safety-barriers-on-the-severity-of-motorcyclist-injuries-in-horizontal-curves/) - The main objective of this study is to investigate relations between the presence and type of road safety barriers and the consequences of motorcycle crashes on rural roads. The results show that run-off-road crashes and nighttime driving are significant risk factors. There was no significant positive impact of the presence of safety barriers on the
- [2022 - “A Comprehensive Review on the Behaviour of Motorcyclists: Motivations, Issues, Challenges, Substantial Analysis and Recommendations”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2022-a-comprehensive-review-on-the-behaviour-of-motorcyclists-motivations-issues-challenges-substantial-analysis-and-recommendations-2/) - This review of 174 articles systematically investigates the literature on motorcyclist driving behaviour to present many findings related to the issues, problems, challenges, and research gaps that have existed over the last 10 years (2011–2021). The final number of articles was divided into three main groups: reviews (7/174), experimental studies (41/174), and social studies-based articles
- [2023 – “Analysis of Injury and Resource Utilization Trends in Motorcycle collisions – a Retrospective Study”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2023-analysis-of-injury-and-resource-utilization-trends-in-motorcycle-collisions-a-retrospective-study/) - This study reviewed 150 consecutive adult motorcycle and scooter collision patients treated at a safety-net level I trauma center in Florida between 28th February 2017 and 19th July 2017 and recorded the abbreviated injury scale (AIS) and injury severity scores (ISS) and classified injuries with an Injury Severity Score (ISS) >15 as severe. Results show
- [2024 - "Exploring the Influence of Rider Age and Experience on Motorcycle Crash Risk: Evidence from a Case-control Study"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2024-exploring-the-influence-of-rider-age-and-experience-on-motorcycle-crash-risk-evidence-from-a-case-control-study/) - Using a unique and comprehensive matched case-control database of the Motorcycle Crash Causation Study, this study analyzes how the risk of crashing is influenced by riders’ age, experience, and training levels while controlling for other factors, such as alcohol use by the rider. Results suggest that younger riders have a heightened risk, which is reduced
- [2017 – “Modelling Single-vehicle, Single-rider Motorcycle Crash Injury Severity: An Ordinal Logistic Regression Approach”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2017-modelling-single-vehicle-single-rider-motorcycle-crash-injury-severity-an-ordinal-logistic-regression-approach/) - This study tries to investigate the motorcycle crashes in North Carolina more in depth. A partial proportional odds (PPO) logistic regression model was developed to examine the influence of the explanatory variable on the ordered dependent variable, that is, injury severity. Older riders, DUI riding, not wearing helmets, crashes during summer and weekends, darkness, crashes
- [2018 – “Understanding Emerging Motorcyclist Segments in Crashes using Florida Crash Data and Statewide Survey”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-understanding-emerging-motorcyclist-segments-in-crashes-using-florida-crash-data-and-statewide-survey/) - The demographics of motorcyclists involved in fatal motorcycle crashes have changed because of an increase in the number of motorcyclists under age 30 and over age 50 during the past 10 years. As a result, motorcyclists in the United States can be clustered into three distinct segments by age in crash experiences. This study used
- [2020 – “A Review of Behavioural Issues Contribution to Motorcycle Safety”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2020-a-review-of-behavioural-issues-contribution-to-motorcycle-safety/) - The objectives of this paper are to unveil and analyse certain behavioural patterns of riders influencing the motorcycle mishaps through literature reviews on various aspects of riding behaviours including the lack of visibility and alertness, and speeding issues. This is important for a comprehensive and broad understanding of the riders' behavioural and performance traits associated
- [2024 – “The Art of Riding Safely: A Critical Examination of Advanced Rider Assistance Systems in Motorcycle Safety Discourse”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2024-the-art-of-riding-safely-a-critical-examination-of-advanced-rider-assistance-systems-in-motorcycle-safety-discourse/) - Motorcyclists remain overrepresented in road trauma statistics. However, motorcycles are often overlooked in safe systems frameworks and road safety strategies that consider system-wide behaviour. Although vehicle manufacturers test their technologies, these tests primarily assess whether design objectives are met, not the real-world safety implications for riders which remain unclear. This study examined how motorcycle manufacturers
- [2024 – “Exploring Beliefs and Perceptions Towards Advanced Rider Assistance Systems (ARAS) in Motorcycle Safety”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2024-exploring-beliefs-and-perceptions-towards-advanced-rider-assistance-systems-aras-in-motorcycle-safety/) - This study applied the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) to explore motorcycle riders’ under lying behavioural, normative, and control beliefs towards Advanced Rider Assistance Systems (ARAS). Each belief was explored in terms of three categories of technologies, (i) advanced technologies that help riders manage riding according to situations and conditions, (ii) advanced technologies that help
- [2017 – “Motorcycle Fatalities Revisited: A Classical and Bayesian Analysis”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2017-motorcycle-fatalities-revisited-a-classical-and-bayesian-analysis/) - This paper examines the determinants of motorcycle fatality rates using panel data and classical and Bayesian statistical methods. It focuses on five variables in particular: universal helmet laws, partial helmet laws, cell phone use, suicidal propensities, and beer consumption. Universal helmet laws are found to be favored over partial helmet laws to reduce motorcycle fatality
- [2025 – “The Science of Being Seen”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2025-the-science-of-being-seen/) - This is a SMARTER edited version (42 pages) of a review of the literature written by Kevin Williams on the subject of the motorcyclist/car crash scenario where the car driver violates the right-of-way of the motorcyclist. In the U. S. this crash scenario is often called a Looked But Failed to See (LBFTS) crash. In
- [2025 – “Motorcycles in the Minds Eye: Comparing and Improving the Mental Models of Car Drivers and Motorcyclists”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2025-motorcycles-in-the-minds-eye-comparing-and-improving-the-mental-models-of-car-drivers-and-motorcyclists/) - This research explores the theory that Looked But Failed to See car driver/motorcyclists collisions are not due to carelessness, but to a lack of experience and flawed ‘mental models’ whereby car drivers and motorcyclists think differently about road situations. Researchers created videos to persuade motorcyclists and car drivers to re-evaluate their relationship to each other,
- [2009 - “Public Policy and Motorcycle Safety”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2009-public-policy-and-motorcycle-safety/) - Numerous studies have examined the effectiveness of alcohol and traffic policies in reducing automobile crashes and fatalities, but only a few have analyzed the impact of state-specific policies on motorcycle safety and most have focused on fatalities only. This study provides a comprehensive investigation of both fatal and non-fatal injuries. State-level longitudinal data from 1990
- [2019 - “Increased Mortality Among Critically Injured Motorcyclists Over 65 Years of Age”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2019-increased-mortality-among-critically-injured-motorcyclists-over-65-years-of-age/) - This research examined if older critically injured motorcyclists are subject to higher mortality and longer hospital stays compared to younger motorcyclists with nearly identical severity of injuries. Results: Despite a nearly identical severity of anatomical injury persons sustaining trauma in motorcycle accidents who were over 65 years of age needed longer and more intensive treatment
- [2019 - The 'Saw But Forgot' Error: A Role for Short-term Memory Failures in Understanding Junction Crashes?"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2019-the-saw-but-forgot-error-a-role-for-short-term-memory-failures-in-understanding-junction-crashes-2/) - For each real-world crash there are hundreds of thousands of safe, successful, junction crossings, but when errors do occur they can have fatal consequences. To understand what is going on this research explored where drivers looked and what they remembered while crossing junctions in a driving simulator. The results suggest that it's what happens in
- [2025 – “Association of State Helmet Laws with Helmet Use and Injury Outcomes in Motorcycle Crashes](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2025-association-of-state-helmet-laws-with-helmet-use-and-injury-outcomes-in-motorcycle-crashes/) - North Carolina (NC) requires all motorcyclists to be helmeted, while South Carolina (SC) requires helmets only for drivers under 21 years of age. This study examined helmet use data and outcomes among motorcycle crash (MCC) patients evaluated at a level I trauma center with a catchment area spanning the two states. Helmet use was 94%
- [2007 – “Motorcycle Safety Device Investigation: A Case Study on Airbags”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2007-motorcycle-safety-device-investigation-a-case-study-on-airbags/) - This report describes the process of using FE (Finite Element) simulations to investigate safety options for motorcycle riders. Based on the simulations, it may be concluded that inflating airbags in motorcycles do not pose a significant injury threat.
- [2022 – “Investigating the Difference in Factors Contributing to the Likelihood of Motorcyclist Fatalities in Single Motorcycle and Multiple Vehicle Crashes”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2022-investigating-the-difference-in-factors-contributing-to-the-likelihood-of-motorcyclist-fatalities-in-single-motorcycle-and-multiple-vehicle-crashes/) - In order to better understand the factors affecting the likelihood of motorcyclists’ fatal injuries, motorcycle-involved crashes were investigated based on the involvement of the following: single motorcycle (SM), multiple motorcycles (MM) and motorcycle versus vehicle (MV)crashes. Factors that increase the likelihood of motorcyclist fatality include lanes separated by traffic islands, male motorcyclists, and riding with
- [2024 – “Improving Motorcycle Safety – A Review of Interventions and Guidance for Development and Evaluation”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2024-improving-motorcycle-safety-a-review-of-interventions-and-guidance-for-development-and-evaluation/) - This work explored the role of post-license motorcycle interventions (rider training, education, communication and other like hazard perception). The report details the findings from an international literature review, crash analysis and profiling, stakeholder workshop, logic model development and evaluation guidance. The literature review is extensive and identified a lack of evidence for existing rider interventions
- [2015 - “ Drivers’ Attitudes and Knowledge Regarding Motorcycle Lane-filtering Practices”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-drivers-attitudes-and-knowledge-regarding-motorcycle-lane-filtering-practices-2/) - This report summarizes results of driver survey’s from before and after a lane-filtering trial in New South Wales and Queensland Australia in 2015. The introduction and literature provide quality background regarding driver perceptions. Overall, it appears that attitudes towards lane filtering and especially opinions regarding its safety are divergent between PTW riders and non-riders. Whereas
- [2014 -“Motorcycle Lane-filtering Trial: Summary of Trial Results](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2014-motorcycle-lane-filtering-trial-summary-of-trial-results/) - This trial of motorcycle lane filtering was conducted within a defined area in the Sydney Australia in 2013. The purpose of the trial was to gain an understanding of the impacts of motorcycle lane filtering on traffic congestion, road user behavior, attitudes and road safety, across all road user groups. For the purposes of the
- [2010 – “Hazard Perception of Motorcyclists and Car Drivers”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2010-hazard-perception-of-motorcyclists-and-car-drivers/) - The current study compares hazard perception (HP) performance of 50 male drivers with and without a motorcycle license in order to generalize results .A video-based HP test, measuring reaction times to traffic scenes, was administered to these two groups of drivers. Participants with a motorcycle license performed better than participants without a motorcycle license. HP
- [2015 – “Relationship Between Driving-violation Behaviours and Risk Perception in Motorcycle Accidents”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-relationship-between-driving-violation-behaviours-and-risk-perception-in-motorcycle-accidents/) - The primary aims of this study were to explore the relationship between driving-violation behaviours and perceptions of the risk associated with potential accident causes, and to assess the contribution of these factors to active involvement in accidents. A relationship was identified between driving-violation behaviours and risk perceptions. The motorcyclists involved in accidents demonstrated more aggressive
- [2011 – “A Comparison of the Hazard Perception Ability of Accident-involved and Accident-free Motorcycle Riders”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-a-comparison-of-the-hazard-perception-ability-of-accident-involved-and-accident-free-motorcycle-riders-2/) - The primary purpose of this study was to deepen our understanding of the correlation of different subtypes of visual attention and driving violation behaviors and their effect on hazard perception between accident-free and accident-involved motorcycle riders. The results showed that both the divided and selective attention of accident-involved motorcycle riders were significantly inferior to those
- [2011 – “Death by Motorcycle: Background, Behavioral, and Situational Correlates of Fatal Motorcycle Collisions”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-death-by-motorcycle-background-behavioral-and-situational-correlates-of-fatal-motorcycle-collisions-2/) - This paper examines fatal motorcycle accidents as a cause of death, using a retrospective analysis of motorcycle operator fatalities from 2003 to 2008 in the state of Indiana. During these six years, out of more than 18,000 motorcycle operators in crashes, 601 were killed. Based on police report data, motorcycle operators during this period are
- [2008 – “Car Drivers’ Skills and Attitudes to Motorcycle Safety: A Review”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2008-car-drivers-skills-and-attitudes-to-motorcycle-safety-a-review-2/) - This report proposes a framework for interpreting the literature and evidence on car drivers’ skills and attitudes towards motorcyclists. The framework relates attitudes,knowledge and skills/strategies to three behaviors: Does the driver look at the motorcyclist? Does the driver realize that it is a motorcyclist? Does the driver correctly decide whether the motorcyclist poses a hazard?
- [2022 – “Safeguarding Motorcyclists: Trialing New PRIME Road Markings for Casualty Reduction” ABSTRACT](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2022-safeguarding-motorcyclists-trialing-new-prime-road-markings-for-casualty-reduction-abstract/) - Where only a motorcyclist was involved, the typical causes of incidents are attributed to a poor turn or manoeuvre, exceeding the speed limit, loss of control, travelling too fast for the conditions or sudden braking. Innovative road markings for motorcyclists, designed as Perceptual Rider Information for Maximising Expertise and Enjoyment (PRIMEs) were installed on the
- [2024 – “Post-License Safety Interventions for Motorcyclists: A Systematic Literature Review”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2024-post-license-safety-interventions-for-motorcyclists-a-systematic-literature-review/) - Tailored post-licensed interventions, defined as educational programs, training sessions, or initiatives that are designed to enhance the safety skills and awareness of individuals who have already obtained their motorcycle licenses, have been proposed as solutions to increase motorcyclist safety. This study aims to summarize the evidence on the effectiveness of post-license interventions for the safety
- [2022 – “ Strategies for Reducing Motorcyclist Injuries: Engaging Stakeholders to Apply Evidence-Based Countermeasures that Work”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2022-strategies-for-reducing-motorcyclist-injuries-engaging-stakeholders-to-apply-evidence-based-countermeasures-that-work/) - After developing a deeper understanding of the nature of rider injuries, using the Motorcycle Crash Causation Study (MCCS) data, and building on motorcycle research activities in an earlier project (CSCRS Project R-20) and the momentum to translate the research results into practice, this Tennessee based project identifies countermeasures that can potentially reduce injuries in motorcycle
- [2024 – “ Developing Improved Crash Prevention Approaches through In-depth Investigation of Motorcycle Crash Causation Patterns'](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2024-developing-improved-crash-prevention-approaches-through-in-depth-investigation-of-motorcycle-crash-causation-patterns/) - This paper presents an in-depth analysis of PTW crashes in six European countries, with a case study of Loss of Control in Curves (LoCC), to address the gap between crash causation and prevention. By examining crash causation factors and their linkage to prevention strategies, the study illustrates various approaches for connecting causes and countermeasures. The
- [2024 – “Evidence Synthesis on Road Safety Communication Strategies”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2024-evidence-synthesis-on-road-safety-communication-strategies/) - This review aimed to synthesize evidence on communication strategies and their effectiveness. The review found that social media campaigns alone were only partially effective and that posters, billboard and television alone were found not effective. No research was found evaluating radio alone campaigns. Radio, TV and social marketing combined with enforcement campaigns were found to
- [2023 - “Evidence Synthesis on Interventions Targeting Motorcyclist Safety”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2023-evidence-synthesis-on-interventions-targeting-motorcyclist-safety/) - This review excluded interventions focusing on helmet use, safe speed adherence, and avoidance of driving under the influence as those countermeasures already have strong evidence of effectiveness. However, studies discussing these interventions delivered in combination with other motorcycle-specific interventions were included. This review presents global evidence of the effectiveness of other interventions targeting motorcyclist safety,
- [2022 – “A Comprehensive Review on the Behaviour of Motorcyclists: Motivations, Issues, Challenges, Substantial Analysis and Recommendations”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2022-a-comprehensive-review-on-the-behaviour-of-motorcyclists-motivations-issues-challenges-substantial-analysis-and-recommendations/) - This review article systematically investigates the literature on motorcyclist driving behaviour to present many findings related to the issues, problems, challenges, and research gaps that have existed over the last 10 years (2011–2021).
- [2020 – “Investigating the Vulnerability of Motorcyclists to Crashes and Injuries”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2020-investigating-the-vulnerability-of-motorcyclists-to-crashes-and-injuries/) - This project addresses four critical safety issues related to motorcyclists: conspicuity, young vs experienced riders, training and education and new automation technologies. Two projects were involved as described below. (1) “Heterogeneity Based Case-Control Analysis of Motorcyclist’s Injury Crashes: Evidence from Motorcycle Crash Causation Study” quantifies how different “policy-sensitive” factors are associated with motorcycle injury crash
- [2024 – “SMSA Entry-Level Rider Training Standards (SERTS)”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/this-document-is-not-research-regarding-training-however-the-contents-are-associated-with-training-this-is-a-document-was-created-by-the-state-motorcycle-safety-association-smsa-describing-entry-le/) - This document is not research regarding training however the contents are associated with training. This is a document was created by the State Motorcycle Safety Association (SMSA) describing Entry-Level Rider Training Standards (SERTS). Five key areas are included: (1) Program Administration and Oversight, (2) Instructor Qualifications, (3) Coordination with Motorcycle Licensing, (4) Education and Training,
- [2021 – “A Comparison of Motorcycle Instructor Candidate Selection Practices in the United States”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2021-a-comparison-of-motorcycle-instructor-candidate-selection-practices-in-the-united-states/) - This research is not about training directly; however, it is connected to the outcomes of training as an essential aspect of motorcycle rider education is how the instructor selection process impacts student learning. The results suggest that changes in instructor candidate selection systems may improve decisions about a candidate’s job and organizational fit. The study
- [2010 - "Motorcycle Lane-Sharing: Literature Review"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2010-motorcycle-lane-sharing-literature-review/) - This report by the Oregon Department of Transportation examines the use of lane-sharing nationally and internationally and includes discussions on motorcycle and driver (auto) safety, and the potential benefits of lane-sharing. A review of literature relevant to lane-sharing revealed that research on the topic is limited. Benefits were often cited in motorcyclist advocacy publications and
- [2018 – “Summary of Findings: Select Risk Factors"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-summary-of-findings-select-risk-factors/) - Four-page summary of Select Risk Factors Associated with Causes of Motorcycle Crashes. Key messages and 31 key findings.
- [2024 – The Human Cost of Unhelmeted Motorcyclists – IIHS News Release](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2024-the-human-cost-of-unhelmeted-motorcyclists-iihs-news-release/) - More than 20,000 motorcyclists who died in crashes in the U.S. since the mid-1970s would have survived if stronger helmet laws had been in place, a new study from the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety shows. If every state had required all riders to wear helmets from 1976 to 2022, a total of 22,058 motorcyclists’
- [2024 – “The Human Cost of Unhelmeted Motorcyclists”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2024-the-human-cost-of-unhelmeted-motorcyclists/) - The objective of this study by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety was to estimate the number of motorcyclist fatalities attributable to laws that allow unhelmeted riding in the United States since 1976. The study determined if all states had all-rider helmet laws throughout the 1976–2022 study period, 22,058 fewer motorcyclists would have died in
- [2020 – “Emergency Braking at Intersections: A Motion-base Motorcycle Simulator Study”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2020-emergency-braking-at-intersections-a-motion-base-motorcycle-simulator-study/) - Powered two-wheeler riders are frequently involved in crashes at intersections because an approaching car driver fails to give right of way. This simulator study aimed to investigate how riders perform an emergency braking maneuver in response to an oncoming car and, second, whether longitudinal motion cues provided by a motion platform influence riders’ braking performance.
- [2024 – “Driver Education and Training Promising Practices: A Systemic Literature Review”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2024-driver-education-and-training-promising-practices-a-systemic-literature-review/) - The Novice Teen Driver Education and Training Administrative Standards (NTDETAS) reflect current and recommended practice in driver education and are based on a solid foundation comprised of expert opinion, experience, and consensus, and backed by scientific evidence when available. The purpose of this white paper is to identify information gaps and key research questions related
- [2016 – “2013-2014 National Roadside Study of Alcohol and Drug Use by Drivers (Alcohol Results) “](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-2013-2014-national-roadside-study-of-alcohol-and-drug-use-by-drivers-alcohol-results/) - This report describes the alcohol results from the 2013–2014 National Roadside Survey (NRS), a national field study to estimate the prevalence of alcohol-, drug-, and alcohol-plus-drug-involved driving, primarily among nighttime weekend drivers, but also daytime Friday drivers, This report focuses on the alcohol breath-test results, presents the 2013−2014 prevalence estimates for alcohol-involved driving, and compares
- [2023 – “Safer Roads for Motorcyclists - Moving Towards a Systematic Approach for Motorcycle Safety”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2023-safer-roads-for-motorcyclists-moving-towards-a-systematic-approach-for-motorcycle-safety/) - This report is a follow-up to The Institute of Highway Engineers (IHE) Motorcycling Guidelines Road Design & Traffic Engineering published in 2005. This report should be essential reading along with the “Guidelines,” which it references, to a broad range of stakeholders. The Guidelines were the first such publication to set out practical guidance for policy
- [2020 – “Investigating the Effect of Blood Alcohol Concentration on Motorcyclist’s Riding Performance”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2020-investigating-the-effect-of-blood-alcohol-concentration-on-motorcyclists-riding-performance/) - It is largely accepted that drink-driving significantly increases the likelihood that a driver may engage in risk-taking behavior and thus road crash. This study is attempted to evaluate the effect of low BAC levels (i.e., _0.05 g/dL or 0.05) on riding performance of motorcycle riders in Vietnam using an advanced motorcycle riding simulator. At the
- [2017 – “Washington Traffic Safety Commission Literature Review”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2017-washington-traffic-safety-commission-literature-review/) - A summary of the literature and short summaries of twelve (12) published articles completed by the Research and Data Division.
- [2013 – “Factors Influencing the Severity of Crashes Caused by Motorcyclists: Analysis of Data from Alabama”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-factors-influencing-the-severity-of-crashes-caused-by-motorcyclists-analysis-of-data-from-alabama/) - Most work on motorcycle crash severity has been based on analysis of all crashes involving motorcycles. The majority of motorcycle crashes in Alabama are cause by the motorcyclist. An analysis of factors affecting the injury severity outcome of motorcycle causal crashes is presented. With some 70% of motorcycles crashes in Alabama resulting in some type
- [2022 – “Evaluation of Utah’s .05 BAC Per Se Law”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2022-evaluation-of-utahs-05-bac-per-se-law/) - This is a research report by the National Highway Transportation Safety Administration. The goal of this study was to conduct a comprehensive evalua­tion of the impacts of the change in Utah’s per se law from .08 to .05 which went into effect December 30, 2018 . The specific goals were to document the legislative process
- [2015 – “The Austroads in-depth Study of Motorcycle Crashes in NSW: Causal Relationship Findings”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-the-austroads-in-depth-study-of-motorcycle-crashes-in-nsw-causal-relationship-findings/) - This was a case-controlled study. The results present some unique findings related to motorcycle being ridden, the rider’s familiarity with the motorcycle being ridden, familiarity with the crash location, the rider’s use of protective equipment and age of the rider are key indicators of motorcycle crash risk. The authors point out that while sport bike
- [2022 - “Full-face Motorcycle Helmets to Reduce Injury and Death: A systematic review, meta-analysis, and practice management guideline from the Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma” Abstract](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2022-full-face-motorcycle-helmets-to-reduce-injury-and-death-a-systematic-review-meta-analysis-and-practice-management-guideline-from-the-eastern-association-for-the-surgery-of-trauma/) - While the research is clear that motorcycle helmets reduce mortality and morbidity, no guidelines specify which is safest. The authors did a review of the literature seeking to determine if full-face helmets reduce injury and death and concluded full-face helmets significantly reduce traumatic brain injury, significantly reduce facial fracture and reduce severity of head, neck,
- [2020 - “Are Full-face Helmets the Most Effective in Preventing Head and Neck Injury in Motorcycle Accidents? A meta-analysis” Abstract](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2020-are-full-face-helmets-the-most-effective-in-preventing-head-and-neck-injury-in-motorcycle-accidents-a-meta-analysis-abstract/) - Although it is well documented that helmets can provide protection against injury, there is limited evidence available regarding which type of helmet best protects against head and neck injuries in this setting. This is an abstract of a literature review aimed to determine the most effective helmet type in preventing head and cervical injuries in
- [2011 “Death by Motorcycle: Background, Behavioral, and Situational Correlates of Fatal Motorcycle Collisions”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-death-by-motorcycle-background-behavioral-and-situational-correlates-of-fatal-motorcycle-collisions/) - This paper examines fatal motorcyclist crashes as a cause of death, using a retrospective analysis of motorcycle operator fatalities from 2003 to 2008 in the state of Indiana. The major correlates of death identified were objects of impact, risky behaviors, and speed. The largest positive effects on the chances of death were linked to trees,
- [2023 Countermeasures That Work, 11th Edition](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2023-countermeasures-that-work-11th-edition/) - The guide describes major countermeasures, summarizes countermeasure use, effectiveness, cost, implementation time and provides references to the most important research summaries and individual studies. Chapter 6, pages 275 - 303 addresses motorcyclist safety. Universal Motorcycle Helmet Use Laws remains the only countermeasure determined to be effective by several high-quality evaluations with consistent results. Alcohol Impaired
- [2021 - "Braking Capabilities of Motorcyclists – An Update Literature Review"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2021-braking-capabilities-of-motorcyclists-an-update-literature-review/) - This article reviews published studies related to the deceleration that motorcyclists can produce by braking. An important concept the article points out is the difference between the braking capabilities of a motorcycle and the deceleration an average rider can achieve on that motorcycle. Most riders will not be capable of fully utilizing the braking capabilities
- [2023 - "Evidence of ABS Effectiveness"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2023-evidence-of-abs-effectiveness/) - This is the Nov. 2023 IIHS/HLDI petition to NHTSA asking for an upgrade to federal vehicle safety standard to require ABS on all motorcycles. The letter provides an excellent summary of ABS effectiveness and is extensively referenced.
- [2013 Evaluation of a Contact Letter to Increase Licensure](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-evaluation-of-a-contact-letter-to-increase-licensure/) - An evaluation of a California program to increase licensure among improperly licensed motorcycle owners through DMV letters found that while the letters did increase licensure, there was no identifiable causal effect on crash involvements or traffic violations.
- [2017 -  “The Effects of Michigan’s Weakened Motorcycle Helmet Use Law on Insurance Losses – Five Years Later. A Bulletin.](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2017-the-effects-of-michigans-weakened-motorcycle-helmet-use-law-on-insurance-losses-five-years-later-a-bulletin/) - This bulletin reports on and expands the 2016 study by including insurance loss data through the 2016 riding season. Michigan losses were compared with losses in Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, where laws regarding helmet use were stable. The study controlled for motorcycle age and class, rider demographic factors, geographic factors, and weather. It also
- [2014 – “Use of Back Protector Device on Motorcycles and Mopeds in Italy”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2014-use-of-back-protector-device-on-motorcycles-and-mopeds-in-italy/) - This study points out that greater use of BPD could reduce the number of injuries to the spinal column resulting from road traffic accidents involving motorized two-wheeled vehicles. Concerning level of protection, there are no differences between drivers and passengers. In most severely injured motorcyclists (i.e., hospitalized or deceased), the percentage of injuries to the
- [2014 – “A Latent Class Analysis of Single-vehicle Motorcycle Crash Severity Outcomes”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2014-a-latent-class-analysis-of-single-vehicle-motorcycle-crash-severity-outcomes/) - This paper uses a latent class approach to investigate the factors that affect crash severity outcomes in single-vehicle motorcycle crashes. The estimation results show a significant relationship between severe crash injury outcomes and crash-specific factors (such as speeding, run-off road, collision with fixed object and overturn/rollover), riding on high-speed roads, riding on rural roads, riding
- [2022 – “Effect of Motorcycle Lighting Configurations on Drivers’ Perceptions of Closing”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2022-effect-of-motorcycle-lighting-configurations-on-drivers-perceptions-of-closing/) - The aims of this research were to better understand how drivers perceive an approaching set of motorcycle headlights during nighttime driving. The authors conclude an alternative motorcycle headlight configuration that accentuated the full extent of a motorcycle’s size resulted in drivers perceiving closing sooner than other motorcycle headlight configurations but not sooner compared to a
- [2012 -  “Motorcyclists’ Speed and “Looked-but-Failed-to-See” Accidents”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-motorcyclists-speed-and-looked-but-failed-to-see-accidents/) - ABSTRACT - The results show that, in urban environments, the initial speeds of motorcyclists involved in “looked-but-failed-to-see” crashes are significantly higher than in other crashes at intersections. In rural environments, the difference in speed between LBFTS crashes and other crashes is not significant.
- [2021 – “Human Error in Motorcycle Crashes](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2021-human-error-in-motorcycle-crashes/) - Human error is considered the primary factor contributing to crashes involving powered-two-wheelers (PTW), however no human-factors-based crash analysis methodology has been developed to support effectiveness of rider training interventions. The aim of this research was to define a methodology that uses in-depth data to identify the skills needed by riders in the highest risk crash
- [2019 –“Motorcycle Crash Causation Study: Final Report”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2019-motorcycle-crash-causation-study-final-report/) - The Motorcycle Crash Causation Study (MCCS), conducted through the Federal Highway Administration Office of Safety Research and Development, produced a wealth of information on the causal factors of motorcycle (MC) crashes and provides perspectives on what crash-countermeasure opportunities can be developed. This final report describes the development and conduct of the MCCS and contains tabulations
- [2016 “Effectiveness of Interventions to Prevent Motorcycle Injuries: Systematic Review of the Literature”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-effectiveness-of-interventions-to-prevent-motorcycle-injuries-systematic-review-of-the-literature/) - The authors carried out a systematic review of the literature to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions to prevent motorcycle crashes and the associated morbidity and mortality. The studies included in this review provide evidence for the effectiveness of helmet use, protective clothing, training, and penalties for alcohol consumption and speeding in preventing injury and death
- [2023 - Motorcycle Licensing: Evaluation of Current Practices and Recommendations for Improvement](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2023-motorcycle-licensing-evaluation-of-current-practices-and-recommendations-for-improvement/) - This is a short document describing the “problem statement” for proposed research which provides an excellent summary of the status of motorcyclist licensing practices in the U.S.
- [2022 – "Alcohol, Other Drug, and Multiple Drug Use Among Drivers"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2022-alcohol-other-drug-and-multiple-drug-use-among-drivers/) - This safety research report by the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) examines the crash risk associated with different drugs, including alcohol, and the prevalence of their use among drivers; it also discusses countermeasures to reduce impairment-related crashes. The NTSB identified five (5) safety issue made new recommendations to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration; the
- [2021 - Countermeasures That Work, Tenth Edition, 2020](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2021-countermeasures-that-work-tenth-edition-2020/) - The guide describes major strategies and countermeasures, summarizes strategy/countermeasure use, effectiveness, cost, implementation time and provides references to the most important research summaries and individual studies. Chapter 5, pages 255 – 274 addresses motorcyclist safety. The appendix for chapter 5, pages 522 – 541 provides expanded discussion of countermeasure that have received only a 1-star
- [2017 – Universal Motorcycle Helmet Laws to Reduce Injuries: A Community Guide Systemic Review](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2017-universal-motorcycle-helmet-laws-to-reduce-injuries-a-community-guide-systemic-review/) - A total of 60 U.S. Studies qualified for inclusion in the review. Databases relevant to health or transportation were search from database inception to August 2012. Analysis of the data was completed in 2014. The research concluded universal helmet laws are effective in increasing motorcycle helmet use and reducing deaths and injuries. Repealing universal helmet
- [2019 – Injury Patterns among Motorcyclists Trauma Patients: A Cross Sectional Study on 4200 Patients](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2019-injury-patterns-among-motorcyclists-trauma-patients-a-cross-sectional-study-on-4200-patients/) - This study was conducted to investigate the injury patterns among motorcyclist’s trauma patients admitted to Kamyab Hospital, the largest trauma center affiliated with Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran. The gathered data included the demographic variables, injury pattern, accident time and accident type. Head injury was the most common type of trauma, leading a
- [2022 – “The Connected Motorcycle Consortium”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2022-the-connected-motorcycle-consortium/) - The Connected Motorcycle Consortium (CMC) is a collaboration between manufacturers, suppliers, researchers and associations to make Powered Two Wheelers (motorcycles and scooters) part of the future connected mobility. The CMC Basic Specification is composed of several styles of documents: Research results, White Papers, Requirements, Technical Specifications, Definitions, Test reports, Guidelines, Recommendations. These documents cover multiple
- [2021 – “Exploring the Relationship Between Entry-level motorcycle Rider Training and Motorcycle Crashes”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2021-exploring-the-relationship-between-entry-level-motorcycle-rider-training-and-motorcycle-crashes/) - This study highlights the need for data to include exposure data and linkages to injury, citation, training and crash data. After a linkable training database is developed, there will be a period of time before crash, citation, and injury data can be analyzed.
- [2007 – “Teaching Old Dogs New Tricks?: Training and Older Motorcyclists”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2007-teaching-old-dogs-new-tricks-training-and-older-motorcyclists/) - Past studies of the effects of motorcycle training on crash involvement have shown mixed results. This paper examines the training history of a sample of older riders and the links to their crash involvement. There was no significant relationship between involvement in one or more crashes and having completed a training course. There was no
- [2022 - Ten-year Post Motorcycle Helmet Repeal:  Michigan Motorcycle Traffic Crash Statistics 2012 – 2021](https://smarter-usa.org/study/ten-year-post-motorcycle-helmet-repeal-michigan-motorcycle-traffic-crash-statistics-2012-2021/) - The data summarized in this document covers the ten-year period following the repeal of Michigan’s all-rider helmet requirement. The data demonstrate the deadly impact of this change. The organization which lobbied for the repeal claimed the change would (1) have no negative impact on rider deaths (2) produce a dramatic increase in motorcycle ownership/registrations and
- [2022 - "Saving Lives through Road Safety Risk Factor Interventions](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2022-saving-lives-through-road-safety-risk-factor-interventions/) - This research estimates the potential number of lives saved if each country implemented interventions to address four (4) risk factors for road injuries (i.e., speeding, drink driving, helmet use, and use of seatbelt or child restraint). Results suggest that the implementation of evidence-based road safety interventions that target the four main road safety risk factors
- [2022 – “Motorcycle Helmet Standards Summary and Update, Part II](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2022-motorcycle-helmet-standards-summary-and-update-part-ii/) - This is the March/April 2022 SMARTER Riding Smart Newsletter Special Edition Part II. It is a continuation of the summary of motorcycle helmet standards presented in Part I. Part II focuses on oblique impacts/rotational forces.
- [2017 – “Biomechanical Evaluation of Motorcycle Helmets – Protection against Head and Brain Injuries”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2017-biomechanical-evaluation-of-motorcycle-helmets-protection-against-head-and-brain-injuries/) - This study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of current motorcycle helmets at reducing the risk of traumatic brain injuries. Results indicate that none of the standard helmet models tested provide adequate protection against concussion and severe traumatic brain injuries at moderate impact speeds. Only one of the standard motorcycle helmet models tested provided adequate
- [2001 – “COST 327 - Motorcycle Safety Helmets, Final Report”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2001-cost-327-motorcycle-safety-helmets-final-report/) - COST 327 was formed to investigate, in detail, motorcyclists’ head and neck injuries with findings to be used to propose a specification for the future testing of motorcycle helmets in Europe. This final report is extensive – 327 pages and is extensively referenced.
- [2019 – “Unhelmeted Motorcycle Riders Have Increased Injury Burden: A Need to Revisit Universal Helmet Laws”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2019-unhelmeted-motorcycle-riders-have-increased-injury-burden-a-need-to-revisit-universal-helmet-laws/) - The aim of this study was to compare hospital outcomes for patients in a motorcycle collision with and without helmet use. Patients were divided into two groups: those wearing a helmet and those without. The authors conclude it is not well understood why many states are repealing or have repealed universal helmet laws. Lack of
- [2015-“European Scanning Tour for Motorcycle Safety Final Report”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-european-scanning-tour-for-motorcycle-safety-final-report/) - This is the 196-page final report on the European Scanning Tour for Motorcycle Safety (RIDERSCAN). The project collected existing information on motorcycle safety in Europe, identified needs for action and established a cross-border knowledge-based network, thereby creating a lasting European framework for communicating and collecting data on PTW safety. The main objectives of the project
- [2006 – “ Intelligent Transportation Systems and Motorcycle Safety”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2006-intelligent-transportation-systems-and-motorcycle-safety/) - The current review aimed to investigate the extent to which ITS have been applied to motorcycles (including both existing and emerging technologies) and discuss these ITS according to their likely safety benefits to motorcycle safety. A literature review and expert consultations confirmed that very few motorcycle-specific ITS currently exist, with advanced braking systems a notable
- [2022 – “ Motorcycle Helmet Standards Summary and Update”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2022-motorcycle-helmet-standards-summary-and-update/) - This is the January/February 2022 SMARTER Riding Smart Newsletter - Special Edition Part I. It provides a summary of motorcycle helmet standards as of the date of publication and serves as an excellent starting point for understanding helmet standards and related issues.
- [2021 - "Snell M2020D & M2020R Standards Explained"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/snell-m2020d-m2020r-standards-explained/) - This document provides an explanation of and the reasons for the Snell M2020 D & R standards. The document was written by Mr. Ed Becker, who served Snell as the Chief Engineer and Executive Director of Snell Foundation and oversaw the operation of all the Foundation's helmet certification programs.
- [2021 - “Research on Rotational Forces during Oblique Impacts”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2021-research-on-rotational-forces-during-oblique-impacts/) - This is a PDF of the slides and notes of the Snell Foundation presentation at the International Council of Motorsport Sciences (ICMS) virtual event held December 8-10 2021. Initial slides present history and background information regarding the Snell Foundation. Slide 12 and slides 15 - 25 present Snell’s research regarding oblique impact testing. The slide
- [2020 – “The Dynamics of Motorcycle Crashes: A Global Survey of 1578 Motorcyclists” - Abstract](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2020-the-dynamics-of-motorcycle-crashes-a-global-survey-of-1578-motorcyclists-abstract/) - The survey was disseminated throughout Europe, the USA, Asia, Australia and South America in order to get as much of a global response as possible. The study extends and expands a pilot study based on a survey of motorcyclists whose motorcycles were fitted with the technology of Advanced (anti-lock) Braking Systems (ABS), which was carried
- [2010 – “Best Practice in Road Safety Mass Media Campaigns: A Literature Review”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2010-best-practice-in-road-safety-mass-media-campaigns-a-literature-review/) - Instead of determining whether road safety advertising is effective or not, this review focused on what elements of road safety advertising are more effective and for whom. The review describes current psychological theories of behaviour change and social persuasion that are relevant to road safety advertising. In terms of mass media campaign design, factors that
- [2011 – “ Improving the Effectiveness of Road Safety Campaigns: Current and New Practices”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-improving-the-effectiveness-of-road-safety-campaigns-current-and-new-practices/) - The evaluation of campaigns aimed at improving road safety is still the exception rather than the rule. Because of this, ineffective campaigns and campaign techniques are allowed to continue to be utilised without question, while new methods of behaviour modification are often ignored. This article also describes the pros and cons of some of the
- [2004 – “A Review of Mass Media Campaigns in Road Safety”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2004-a-review-of-mass-media-campaigns-in-road-safety/) - This report investigates the effectiveness of road safety public information campaigns conducted through the mass media. The type of appeal used (rational/emotional/fear), the use of supporting activities (such as enforcement or incentive) and the duration, intensity, timing and exposure of media placement are identified as key variables in the effectiveness of mass media campaigns. Note:
- [2021 – “Motorcycle Autonomous Emergency Braking (MAEB) Employed as Enhanced Braking: Estimating the Potential for Injury Reduction using Real-world Modeling” – ABSTRACT](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2021-motorcycle-autonomous-emergency-braking-maeb-employed-as-enhanced-braking-estimating-the-potential-for-injury-reduction-using-real-world-modeling-abstract/) - This study is a follow-up to the field-tests on Motorcycle Autonomous Emergency Braking system (MAEB) which showed that higher levels of deceleration to improve its effectiveness were feasible. However, the potential of MAEB in mitigating rider injuries is not well understood, particularly in scenarios where the efficacy of standard MAEB is limited because the rider
- [2021 – “Field Testing the Applicability of Motorcycle Autonomous Emergency Braking (MAEB) During Pre-crash Avoidance Maneuver” - ABSTRACT](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2021-field-testing-the-applicability-of-motorcycle-autonomous-emergency-braking-maeb-during-pre-crash-avoidance-maneuver-abstract/) - The objective of this paper is to assess the applicability of Motorcycle Autonomous Emergency Braking (MAEB) activation during lateral avoidance maneuver and to estimate its benefits in this scenario. The objective of this paper is to assess the applicability of MAEB activation during lateral avoidance maneuver and to estimate its benefits in this scenario.
- [2021 – “Motorcycle Helmet Selection and Usage for Improved Safety: A Systematic Review on the Protective Effects of Helmet Type and Fastening” – ABSTRACT](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2021-motorcycle-helmet-selection-and-usage-for-improved-safety-a-systematic-review-on-the-protective-effects-of-helmet-type-and-fastening-abstract/) - The goal of this systematic review is to assess which characteristics of helmet design and use showed a positive influence on rider safety, in order to provide insights to improve end-user helmet usage. Most studies agreed that full-face helmets provide higher protection in comparison with other standard helmets, especially for facial injuries, and no negative
- [2021 – “Investigation of the Speeding Behavior of Motorcyclists Through an Innovative Smartphone Application” - ABSTRACT](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2021-investigation-of-the-speeding-behavior-of-motorcyclists-through-an-innovative-smartphone-application-abstract/) - The objectives of this study were: (i) to explore the riding behavior of motorcyclists while speeding, based on detailed riding analytics collected by smartphone sensors, and (ii) to investigate whether personalized feedback can improve motorcyclist behavior. The research contributes a preliminary example of the quantitative documentation of the impact of personalized rider feedback on one
- [2005 – “ Identifying Best Practices States in Motorcycle Rider Education and Licensing”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2005-identifying-best-practices-states-in-motorcycle-rider-education-and-licensing/) - This study evaluated the government-sponsored training programs in each state on the basis of three main categories; administration, education and licensing. There was a wide range of scores, and according to the authors, this variance represents differences in the effectiveness of each state’s programs. The same curricula, when presented at different training sites, can differ
- [2021- “Motorcycle Antilock Braking Systems and Fatal Crash Rates: Updated Results”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2021-motorcycle-antilock-braking-systems-and-fatal-crash-rates-updated-results/) - The objective of this study was to update the effectiveness estimate for ABS with additional years of data and a broader variety of motorcycle types. Motorcycle drivers involved in fatal crashes per 10,000 registered vehicle years during 2003-19 were examined for 65 motorcycle models offering ABS as an optional feature. Fatal crash rates for motorcycles
- [2019 - Rider Training Research Summary](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-rider-training-research-summary/) - This is a special edition of the SMARTER member newsletter Riding Smart which reviews the research regarding the lack of effectiveness of rider training for reducing the risk of crashing. This edition also includes brief articles addressing the possible reasons rider training is not effective, possible fixes and an opinion article by the SMARTER President.
- [2021 – “Human Error in Motorcycle Crashes: A Methodology Based on In-depth Data to Identify the Skills Needed and Support Training Interventions for Safe Riding”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2021-human-error-in-motorcycle-crashes-a-methodology-based-on-in-depth-data-to-identify-the-skills-needed-and-support-training-interventions-for-safe-riding/) - Human error is considered the primary factor contributing to crashes involving powered-two-wheelers (PTW), however no human-factors-based crash analysis methodology has been developed to support effectiveness of rider training interventions. Our aim is to define a methodology that uses in-depth data to identify the skills needed by riders in the highest risk crash configurations to reduce
- [2019 – “Loss of Control Prediction for Motorcycles during Emergency Braking Maneuvers Using a Supervised Learning Algorithm”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2019-loss-of-control-prediction-for-motorcycles-during-emergency-braking-maneuvers-using-a-supervised-learning-algorithm/) - The most common evasive maneuver among motorcycle riders and one of the most complicated to perform in emergency situations is braking. Because of the inherent instability of motorcycles, motorcycle crashes are frequently caused by loss of control performing braking as an evasive maneuver. Understanding the motion conditions that lead riders to start losing control is
- [2019 – “Emergency Braking Performance of Motorcycle Riders: Skill Identification in a Real-life Perception-action Task Designed for Training Purposes”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2019-emergency-braking-performance-of-motorcycle-riders-skill-identification-in-a-real-life-perception-action-task-designed-for-training-purposes/) - Comparing braking performance in the emergency scenario designed with a more standard hard braking task, this research showed that there were differences in the way of braking in the initial phase. The initial jerk of the riders after detecting an unpredicted hazard presence on the road (car crossing in front of the PTW) was different
- [2017 – “Contributing Factors to Motorcycle Injury Crashes in Victoria, Australia, Abstract”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2017-contributing-factors-to-motorcycle-injury-crashes-in-victoria-australia-abstract/) - Primary and secondary contributors to the crash were judged based on all available information sources. Analysis of the most frequent contributing factors included separation of cases into single and multi-vehicle crashes. For multi-vehicle crashes the most common crash scenario involved another vehicle failing to give way to the rider, and the primary contributor was a
- [2012 – “Negotiating Left-Hand and Right-Hand Bends: A Motorcycle Simulator Study to Investigate Experiential and Behaviour Differences Across Rider Groups”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-negotiating-left-hand-and-right-hand-bends-a-motorcycle-simulator-study-to-investigate-experiential-and-behaviour-differences-across-rider-groups/) - Why do motorcyclists crash on bends? To address this question, we examined the riding styles of three groups of motorcyclists on a motorcycle simulator. The results suggest that non-advanced riders were more likely to choose an inappropriate lane position than an inappropriate speed when entering a bend. Furthermore, the findings support the theory that expertise
- [2012 – “Overview of Critical Risk Factors in Power-Two-Wheeler Safety”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-overview-of-critical-risk-factors-in-power-two-wheeler-safety/) - This is an extensive review of the literature which provides a synthesis of critical risk factors of PTW safety with respect to behavioral, infrastructure, vehicle and weather parameters. Behavioral factors concern PTW drivers’ attitudes and driving patterns, errors and violations, conspicuity and perception of automobile drivers for PTWs, age, gender and experience, education and learning,
- [2012 – “Motorcycle Rider Safety Project – Queensland.”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-motorcycle-rider-safety-project-queensland/) - This program of research was undertaken to produce knowledge to assist (Department of Transportation) to improve motorcycle safety by further strengthening the licensing and training system to make learner riders safer by developing a pre-learner package (Deliverable 1), and by evaluating the Q-Ride CAP program to ensure that it is maximally effective and contributes to
- [2010 – “Approaches to the Assessment of Entry-Level Motorcycle Training: An Expert Panel Discussion](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2010-approaches-to-the-assessment-of-entry-level-motorcycle-training-an-expert-panel-discussion/) - While basic rider courses teach important skills, the effectiveness of training as a safety countermeasure to reduce motorcycle crashes is unclear. Studies conducted in the United States and abroad to evaluate rider training have found mixed evidence for the effect of rider training on motorcycle crashes. Therefore, it is still unclear as to what extent
- [2008 – “Motorcycle Rider Training and Perceptions of Skill”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2008-motorcycle-rider-training-and-perceptions-of-skill/) - It has been argued that driver training can inadvertently result in novice driver overconfidence which may be counterproductive to the safety goals of training. A similar concern can be expressed in regard to novice motorcycle rider training. Overconfidence is posited to generate from trainees’ overestimation of their own skill levels following training, potentially contributing to
- [2005 – “Motorcycle Accident Risk Could Be Inflated by a Time to Arrival Illusion”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2005-motorcycle-accident-risk-could-be-inflated-by-a-time-to-arrival-illusion-2/) - Drivers adopt smaller safety margins when pulling out in front of motorcycles compared with cars. This could partly account for why the most common motorcycle/car accident involves a car violating a motorcyclist’s right of way. One possible explanation is the size–arrival effect in which smaller objects are perceived to arrive later than larger objects. That
- [2020 - Motorcyclist Advisory Council Recommendations](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2020-motorcyclist-advisory-council-recommendations/) - The Motorcyclist Advisory Council was reestablished by the FAST Act on 2015. Under that section, the MAC is responsible for providing advice and recommendations concerning infrastructure issues related to motorcyclist safety including: barrier design; road design, construction, and maintenance practices, and the architecture and implementation of intelligent transportation system technologies. Additional recommendations regarding architecture and
- [2021 – “Motorcycle Lane-splitting/filtering: An Overview of the Literature 2010-2020”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2021-motorcycle-lane-splitting-filtering-an-overview-of-the-literature-2010-2020/) - This is a SMARTER written document that provides an overview of the literature published between 2010 and 2020 that specifically addresses the questions: “Which is higher risk - staying in my lane or splitting/filtering?” and the secondary question “How does the risk change by setting?”
- [2015 - "Motorcycle Lane-splitting and Safety in California"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-motorcycle-lane-splitting-and-safety-in-california/) - This report is the follow up to “Safety Implications of Lane-splitting Among California Motorcyclists Involved in Collisions.” The report summarizes the analysis of data from the California Enhanced Motorcycle Collision Data Project. The report is often referred to as the Berkeley lane-splitting report and is frequently referenced as evidence that lane-splitting is safe (see To
- [2014 – “Naturalistic Study of Riders’ Behaviour in Lane-splitting Situations”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2014-naturalistic-study-of-riders-behaviour-in-lane-splitting-situations/) - This is an abstract of a paper that presents a naturalistic study of motorcyclists’ behaviours during their commutes in the Paris region. The results concern firstly the description of the practice of lane splitting and its significance in their daily journeys. Secondly, the findings indicate the importance of perceptual activities in the participants’ riding behaviour.
- [2016 – “Powered Two-wheeler Riders’ Risk of Crashes Associated with Filtering on Urban Roads”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-powered-two-wheeler-riders-risk-of-crashes-associated-with-filtering-on-urban-roads/) - This is an abstract of a study that investigated the risk of motorcycle crashes while lane-filtering compared with the crash risk associated with motorcycling while not lane-filtering. From video recordings of commute-hour traffic along specific sections of fourteen urban arterials in the Marseilles, researchers calculated the vehicle kilometers traveled (VKT) by lane-splitting and non-lane-splitting motorcyclists.
- [2013 – “Lane-filtering and Situation Awareness in Motorcyclists: An On-road Proof of Concept Study”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-lane-filtering-and-situation-awareness-in-motorcyclists-an-on-road-proof-of-concept-study/) - This study investigated the differences in situational awareness between motorcyclists who engage in lane-splitting and motorcyclists who do not “Overall, the analysis of shared and unique concepts suggests that motorcycle riders who filter tend to shed their focus on perceptions of surrounding hazards and traffic moving through or approaching the intersection to tasks associated with
- [2020 –“Inter-line Traffic Experiment (CIF) of Motorized Two-wheelers: Assessment Report”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2020-inter-line-traffic-experiment-cif-of-motorized-two-wheelers-assessment-report/) - This is an abstract, of the report widely shared in U.S. media with article titles such as French Study Suggests Motorcycle Lane Splitting Can Lead to More Crashes” The study was conducted in 11 French departments (counties) over a period of five years. The Centre for Studies and Expertise on Risks, Environment, Mobility and Planning
- [2017 – “Survive the Ride”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2017-survive-the-ride/) - This is a slide presentation from the 2017 Lifesavers conference. The Survive the Ride is a unique educational program which provides prevention efforts for patients of motorcycle crashes, their families, and medical personnel involved with motorcycle crash victims. The program teaches hospital staff regarding motorcycle crash injury mitigation and also provides a brief intervention to
- [2021 – “Motorcycle Involved Crashes in Michigan: 2015 – 2019”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2021-motorcycle-involved-crashes-in-michigan-2015-2019/) - This report utilizes police-reported crash data in Michigan from 2015 through 2019 to study motorcycle-involved crash trends. Data back to 2010 are used to explore motorcyclist helmet trends before and after the helmet law change in April of 2021. Major findings include: helmet use dropped, operator’s w/o endorsements are less likely to wear a helmet,
- [2021 – “Research Overview - Riding Smart Member Newsletter, Jan./Feb.](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2021-research-overview-riding-smart-member-newsletter-jan-feb/) - This newsletter contains summaries of our understanding and interpretation of some of the major motorcyclist safety research topics including: alcohol, conspicuity, motorcycle design and equipment, helmets and helmets laws, lane splitting, licensing, motorist awareness, perception, protective gear, roads and rider training. A very brief summary of the research is provided and SMARTER shares the associations
- [2019 – “The ‘Saw but Forgot’ Error: A Role for Short-term Memory Failures in Understanding Junction Crashes?”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2019-the-saw-but-forgot-error-a-role-for-short-term-memory-failures-in-understanding-junction-crashes/) - Here we show from a series of three experiments in a high-fidelity driving simulator, that when drivers’ visual attention towards and memory for approaching vehicles is experimentally tested, drivers fail to report approaching motorcycles on between 13% and 18% of occasions. These failures in reporting a critical vehicle were not associated with how long the
- [2020 – “Michigan Specific Research Reference List”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2020-michigan-specific-research-reference-list/) - Michigan repealed the all-rider helmet use law in April of 2012. The negative impact of the repeal has been extensively researched. This document sites this research and provides links to each of the referenced research reports. In addition to this research, the MI data also document the tragic consequences of the repeal.
- [2018 – “The Impact of the Repeal of Michigan’s Universal Helmet Law on Traumatic Brain Injury: A Statewide Analysis”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-the-impact-of-the-repeal-of-michigans-universal-helmet-law-on-traumatic-brain-injury-a-statewide-analysis/) - Following the repeal of the universal helmet law, there has been a significant increase in traumatic brain injuries and neurosurgical interventions. This analysis highlights another detrimental impact of the repeal of the universal helmet law.
- [2020 – “Are Motorcycles Really “Donorcycles”? Examining Organ Donation Rates between Unhelmeted and Helmeted Motorcyclists”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2020-are-motorcycles-really-donorcycles-examining-organ-donation-rates-between-unhelmeted-and-helmeted-motorcyclists/) - This is an abstract of the first study to demonstrate an increased rate of organ donation among unhelmeted motorcyclist fatalities compared to helmeted rider fatalities. Unhelmeted motorcyclists are three times more likely than helmeted riders to become organ donors, possibly due to the well documented increase in severe traumatic brain injuries in this population. From
- [2020 – “Why are Powered Two-wheeler Riders Still Fatally Injured in Road Junction Crashes?  A Causation Analysis”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2020-why-are-powered-two-wheeler-riders-still-fatally-injured-in-road-junction-crashes-a-causation-analysis/) - An abstract of an analysis suggesting that drivers failing to give way to PTW riders at junctions is still a problem. This may relate to the ‘looked but did not see’ phenomenon. The factors that led directly to the crash (phenotype) was most commonly ‘too high speed’ or ‘too late action’ for the motorcyclist and
- [2012 – “A Preliminary Examination of the Effects of Changes in Motorcycle Licensing in Queensland.”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-a-preliminary-examination-of-the-effects-of-changes-in-motorcycle-licensing-in-queensland/) - A reduction in the number of new license applicants obtaining an unrestricted license and an overall decrease in exposure has the potential to reduce crashes.
- [2010 – “Graduated Licensing for Motorcyclists”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2010-graduated-licensing-for-motorcyclists/) - The aim of the research is to determine how to enhance the current graduated licensing process for Victoria to achieve improved road safety outcomes. Based on the research a suite of recommendations is provided.
- [2010 – “Graduated Licensing for Motorcyclists – A Discussion Paper”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2010-graduated-licensing-for-motorcyclists-a-discussion-paper/) - Not research but a good example of how proposed changes could be shared with the public and input sought.
- [2005 – “Review of Motorcycle Licensing and Training”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2005-review-of-motorcycle-licensing-and-training-2/) - This research suggests that any safety benefits of motorcycle licensing and training probably result more from reductions in the total amount of riding than from reductions in crash risk per kilometer traveled. The system proposed should lead to improved safety outcomes because of the increased minimum age, longer provisional period and the greater duration of
- [2017 – “Enhancing Higher-Order Skills Education and Assessment in a Graduated Motorcycle Licensing System”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2017-enhancing-higher-order-skills-education-and-assessment-in-a-graduated-motorcycle-licensing-system/) - The objective of this research was to develop an education and assessment curriculum commensurate with best practice that included on-road components and increased focus on awareness, judgment, and decision-making skills. No single best-practice curriculum was identified in the published literature. Therefore, curriculum content was developed based on exemplary Australian and international curricula, behaviour change theory,
- [2018 – “Recommendations for a Graduated Licensing System for Motorcyclists in South Australia”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-recommendations-for-a-graduated-licensing-system-for-motorcyclists-in-south-australia/) - This report provides a review of the possible elements that could be included in a Graduated Licensing System (GLS) for motorcyclists in South Australia. The aim is to identify a set of GLS elements that are likely to lead to reductions in crash involvement among novice motorcyclists. The different elements are evaluated in terms of
- [2001 – “Research in Support of a Motorcycle Operator Licensing Campaign”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2001-research-in-support-of-a-motorcycle-operator-licensing-campaign/) - This research reports on information from focus groups regarding licensing and how the gathered information was translated into a national campaign urging motorcyclists to get licensed. The paper does however, contain some data (now old) that might be useful in comparison to current data.
- [2013 – “Comparing the Glance Patterns of Older versus Younger Experienced Drivers: Scanning for Hazards while Approaching and Entering the Intersection”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-comparing-the-glance-patterns-of-older-versus-younger-experienced-drivers-scanning-for-hazards-while-approaching-and-entering-the-intersection/) - This study attempts evaluated four hypotheses that attempt to explain the older drivers’ failure to properly scan in intersections: difficulty with head movements, decreases in working memory capacity, increased distractibility, and failure to recall specific scanning patterns. Our results suggest that none of these hypotheses can fully explain our finding that older adults are more
- [2019 – “Dual-target Hazard Perception: Could Identifying One Hazard Hinder a Driver’s Capacity to Find a Second?”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2019-dual-target-hazard-perception-could-identifying-one-hazard-hinder-a-drivers-capacity-to-find-a-second/) - Low-level cognitive processes like visual search are crucial for hazard detection. In dual-target searches, subsequent search misses (SSMs) are known to occur when the identification of one target impedes detection of another that is concurrently presented. Implications of SSMs in understanding the causes of some crashes are discussed, as well as future directions to improve
- [2012 – “Some Hazards are More Attractive than Others - Drivers of Varying Experience Respond Differently to Different Types of Hazard”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-some-hazards-are-more-attractive-than-others-drivers-of-varying-experience-respond-differently-to-different-types-of-hazard/) - The ability to detect hazards in video clips of driving has been inconsistently linked to driving experience and skill. One potential reason for the lack of consistency is the failure to understand the structural differences between those hazards that discriminate between safe and unsafe drivers, and those that do not. The current study used a
- [2020 - “Recording and Evaluating Motorcyclists’ Gaze Behaviour in Rural Roads”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2020-recording-and-evaluating-motorcyclists-gaze-behaviour-in-rural-roads-2/) - The present study deals with motorcycle riders’ gaze behaviour due to out of the vehicle sources of distraction. The most generic conclusion of the analysis is that both at urban and suburban environment exist too many elements that attract the attention of the driver. Average distraction times differ among drivers but every one of them
- [2020  - “Recording and Evaluating Motorcyclists’ Gaze Behaviour in Rural Roads”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2020-recording-and-evaluating-motorcyclists-gaze-behaviour-in-rural-roads/) - The present study deals with motorcycle riders’ gaze behaviour due to out of the vehicle sources of distraction. The most generic conclusion of the analysis is that both at urban and suburban environment exist too many elements that attract the attention of the driver. Average distraction times differ among drivers but every one of them
- [2020 – “Optimized Protective Clothing for Motorcyclists: Which Safety Benefit can Airbag-Clothes Deliver?”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2020-optimized-protective-clothing-for-motorcyclists-which-safety-benefit-can-airbag-clothes-deliver/) - The regions of the body most often affected in motorcycle accidents were identified initially following an analysis of the available accident data. Taking the results of the analyses together, it is clear that today’s commercially available thorax airbags can mitigate injuries at lower speeds of impact. The higher the speed of the impact and
- [2020 – “Motorcyclist pelvis interaction with the fuel tank in frontal crashes – a laboratory test method.”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2020-motorcyclist-pelvis-interaction-with-the-fuel-tank-in-frontal-crashes-a-laboratory-test-method/) - Pelvic injury is common among hospitalised motorcyclists. The primary mechanism is contact with the fuel tank. Injury outcome likely relates to the design of the fuel tank and may also be influenced by the posture of the rider. Currently there is no accepted physical test method for studying this. This study aimed to develop a
- [2020 – “Traffic Violations of Motorcycle Riders in Fatal and Serious Injuries Accidents in Sweden.”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2020-traffic-violations-of-motorcycle-riders-in-fatal-and-serious-injuries-accidents-in-sweden/) - It becomes more evident that many serious traffic violations are a problem mainly amongst those who ride a motorcycle without a valid driver license. Within this group, other serious traffic offenses are also over-represented. Many of the riders without a license did not own the motorcycle used in the fatal accident. In addition, the motorcycles
- [2020 – “Avoiding Motorcycle Accidents by Motorcycle Risk Mapping.”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2020-avoiding-motorcycle-accidents-by-motorcycle-risk-mapping/) - The risk of suffering a motorcycle accident is still difficult to quantify given the different types of individual riding styles of motorcyclists. Every year, nearly 100 motorcycle accidents occur on Austrian roads [1], but the rare occurrence of accidents at the same spot makes it difficult to locate risky spots. To tackle these challenges, test
- [2018 – “Why Do Drivers Pull Out In Front Of Motorcyclists?”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-why-do-drivers-pull-out-in-front-of-motorcyclists-3/) - This is an excellent current comprehensive review of the literature regarding the title topic. The review is written March 5, 2018 by Nathan Rose, Director and Principal of Kineticorp, LLC., (303)733-1888, (720)839-1995, www.nathanarose.com/blog, http://kineticorp.com). Note: SMARTER is providing this contact information as a thank you for the permission to post this article and no
- [2018 – “Why Do Drivers Pull Out In Front Of Motorcyclists?”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-why-do-drivers-pull-out-in-front-of-motorcyclists-2/) - This is an excellent current comprehensive review of the literature regarding the title topic. The review is written March 5, 2018 by Nathan Rose, Director and Principal of Kineticorp, LLC., (303)733-1888, (720)839-1995, www.nathanarose.com/blog, http://kineticorp.com). Note: SMARTER is providing this contact information as a thank you for the permission to post this article and no endorsement
- [2018 - “Meaning Guides Attention in Real-world Scene Images: Evidence from Eye Movements and Meaning Maps”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2907/) - These researchers compared the influence of meaning and of salience on attentional guidance in scene images. The results showed that both meaning and image salience predicted the duration-weighted distribution of attention, but that when the correlation between meaning and salience was statistically controlled, meaning accounted for unique variance in attention whereas salience did not. The
- [2017 - “Interactions between Cars and Motorcycles: Testing Underlying Concepts through Integration of On-Road and Simulator Studies”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2017-interactions-between-cars-and-motorcycles-testing-underlying-concepts-through-integration-of-on-road-and-simulator-studies-2/) - The first study revealed that motorcyclists’ SA comprises more elements than for car drivers, and strong themes emerged around motorcyclists checking for surrounding traffic and hazards. In study 2 an effect of prevalence on the time taken to detect targets was found, with drivers able to detect high-prevalence targets from significantly farther away than low-prevalence
- [2016 - “Judging Arrival Times of Incoming Traffic Vehicles is not a Prerequisite for Safely Crossing an Intersection: Differential Effects of Vehicle Size and Type in Passive Judgment and Active Driving Tasks”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-judging-arrival-times-of-incoming-traffic-vehicles-is-not-a-prerequisite-for-safely-crossing-an-intersection-differential-effects-of-vehicle-size-and-type-in-passive-judgment-and-acti/) - This research assessed the influences of actual arrival times (AT) as well as the size and the type of approaching vehicle(s) on AT judgments. Overall, the results obtained in the two experiments do not provide evidence in favor of reliance on a common perceptual substrate in the two tasks. Use of successive AT estimates
- [2016 - “Perceptual Load Induces Inattentional Blindness in Drivers”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-perceptual-load-induces-inattentional-blindness-in-drivers/) - Perceptual load theory states that the level of perceptual load in a task predicts the processing of task‐irrelevant information. High perceptual load has been shown to result in increased inattentional blindness; however, there is little evidence that this extends beyond artificial computer‐based tasks to real‐world behavior. This study is the first to demonstrate perceptual load
- [2014 - “Safety in Numbers: Target Prevalence Affects the Detection of Vehicles during Simulated Driving”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2014-safety-in-numbers-target-prevalence-affects-the-detection-of-vehicles-during-simulated-driving/) - The “low-prevalence effect” refers to the fact that observers often fail to detect rare targets (
- [2013 - “Effects of Size on Collision Perception and Implications for Perceptual Theory and Transportation Safety”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-effects-of-size-on-collision-perception-and-implications-for-perceptual-theory-and-transportation-safety-2/) - One would expect people to rely on invariants rather than depth cues, but the size-arrival effect shows the contrary: People reported that a large far approaching object would hit them sooner than a small near object that would have hit first. This effect of size on collision perception violates theories of time-to-collision perception based solely
- [2011 - “Decisions about Objects in Real-World Scenes Are Influenced by Visual Saliency Before and During Their Inspection”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-decisions-about-objects-in-real-world-scenes-are-influenced-by-visual-saliency-before-and-during-their-inspection-2/) - Evidence from eye-tracking experiments has provided mixed support for saliency map models of inspection, with the task set for the viewer accounting for some of the discrepancies between predictions and observations. The saliency of a critical vehicle was varied in the present task, as was the type of vehicle and the preferred vehicle of the
- [2006 - “Investigation into ‘A’ Pillar Obscuration – A Study to Quantify the Problem Using Real World Data”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2006-investigation-into-a-pillar-obscuration-a-study-to-quantify-the-problem-using-real-world-data-2/) - The scope of this study was to assess if there is a problem caused by car ‘A’ pillar obscuration in the real world and, if so, to start to quantify the size of that problem. This was achieved by using real world crash data to construct 3-D visualizations that would provide a graphical illustration of
- [2017 - “Interactions between Cars and Motorcycles: Testing Underlying Concepts through Integration of On-Road and Simulator Studies”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2017-interactions-between-cars-and-motorcycles-testing-underlying-concepts-through-integration-of-on-road-and-simulator-studies/) - The first study revealed that motorcyclists’ SA comprises more elements than for car drivers, and strong themes emerged around motorcyclists checking for surrounding traffic and hazards. In study 2 an effect of prevalence on the time taken to detect targets was found, with drivers able to detect high-prevalence targets from significantly farther away than
- [2013 - “Driver Inattention and Driver Distraction in Serious Casualty Crashes: Data from the Australian National Crash In-depth Study”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-driver-inattention-and-driver-distraction-in-serious-casualty-crashes-data-from-the-australian-national-crash-in-depth-study/) - Driver inattention and driver distraction represent a major problem in road safety. Although both are believed to contribute to increased crash risk, there is currently limited reliable information on their role in crashes. The current study used in-depth data from the Australian National Crash In-depth Study to investigate the role of driver distraction and inattention
- [2006 - “Investigation into ‘A’ Pillar Obscuration:  A Study to Quantify the Problem Using Real World Data”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2006-investigation-into-a-pillar-obscuration-a-study-to-quantify-the-problem-using-real-world-data/) - The scope of this study was to assess if there is a problem caused by car ‘A’ pillar obscuration in the real world and, if so, to start to quantify the size of that problem. This was achieved by using real world crash data to construct 3-D visualizations that would provide a graphical illustration of
- [2015 - “Problems of Sensory and Cognitive Conspicuity of Motorcyclists at Junctions:  A Car to Motorcycle Comparison of Visual Search and Give-way Intentions by Car Drivers from Two Angles of Approach”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-problems-of-sensory-and-cognitive-conspicuity-of-motorcyclists-at-junctions-a-car-to-motorcycle-comparison-of-visual-search-and-give-way-intentions-by-car-drivers-from-two-angles-of/) - It is often assumed that motorcyclists have a relatively higher chance of falling victim to car driver right-of-way violations than cars at junctions. Various studies have pointed out this is particularly the case due to the motorcyclist’s poorer sensory- and cognitive conspicuity. The main goal of this study was to examine differences in visual search
- [2004 – “Hazard Perception, Attitudes and Behaviors in Riding – Literature Review”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2004-hazard-perception-attitudes-and-behaviors-in-riding-literature-review/) - Motorcycle riders are subject to specific hazards in addition to those that they have in common with car drivers. Riders’ evaluation of level of risk also needs to take account of the different performance characteristics of a motorcycle compared with a car and the lower levels of injury protection. As the title indicates this report
- [2003 – “Evaluation of Bikesafe Scotland”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2003-evaluation-of-bikesafe-scotland/) - Abstract. The evaluation finds that after taking the program, there was an improvement in the proportion of participants who never or rarely braked too rapidly on a slippery road or nearly lost control on bends. Defensive riding was also successfully promoted by the program. However, some riders may have increased their speed outside built up
- [2012 – “Issues in Motorcycle Sensory and Cognitive Conspicuity”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-issues-in-motorcycle-sensory-and-cognitive-conspicuity/) - Abstract. This report evaluates the impact of motorcycle low-beam headlights and riding experience on drivers' decisions to turn across the path of a motorcycle. The research provides support for the use of low-beam headlights and riding experience as tools through which to augment the sensory and cognitive conspicuity of motorcycles, respectively.
- [2017 – “Comparison of Glancing Behaviors of Riders and Drivers at Unsignalized Intersections Involving Right Turns”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2017-comparison-of-glancing-behaviors-of-riders-and-drivers-at-unsignalized-intersections-involving-right-turns/) - This research was presented at the Ninth International Driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driver Assessment, Training and Vehicle Design and compares the scanning behaviors of a ‘driver-rider’ group and ‘driver-only’ group. The results showed that driver-rider made significantly more glances to the left when riding compared when driving after the intersection than before, while
- [2016 – “Size Speed Bias or Size Arrival Effect - How Judgments of Vehicles' Approach Speed and Time to Arrival are Influenced by the Vehicles' Size”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-size-speed-bias-or-size-arrival-effect-how-judgments-of-vehicles-approach-speed-and-time-to-arrival-are-influenced-by-the-vehicles-size/) - When asked to judge the time it takes an approaching object to arrive at a predefined position (time to arrival, TTA), observers tend to provide lower estimates for larger objects. In that case, road users' crossing decisions when confronted with larger vehicles should be rather conservative, which has been confirmed in multiple studies on gap
- [2013 – “Motorcycling Experience and Hazard Perception”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-motorcycling-experience-and-hazard-perception/) - Sixty-one motorcyclists, split across three groups (novice, experienced and advanced riders) were tested on a hazard perception test containing video clips filmed from the perspective of a motorcyclist. The results demonstrate a link between advanced training and motorcycling hazard perception skill, but raise important concerns about the effects of mere experience on rider safety. This
- [2012 – “Towards a Conceptual Model of Motorcyclists' Risk Awareness: a comparative study of riding experience effect on hazard detection and situational criticality assessment”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-towards-a-conceptual-model-of-motorcyclists-risk-awareness-a-comparative-study-of-riding-experience-effect-on-hazard-detection-and-situational-criticality-assessment/) - This research investigates risk awareness abilities among different populations of motorcyclists. Risk awareness is defined here as an extension of the Situational Awareness theory applied to critical driving situations. This study is more particularly focused on two main cognitive abilities supporting risk awareness: hazard detection, corresponding to riders' skill to perceive critical event occurring in
- [2012 – “Judgments of Approach Speed for Motorcycles across Different Lighting Levels and the Effect of an Improved Tri-headlight Configuration”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-judgments-of-approach-speed-for-motorcycles-across-different-lighting-levels-and-the-effect-of-an-improved-tri-headlight-configuration/) - Incorporation of a tri-headlight formation onto the standard motorcycle frame resulted in improved accuracy of approach speed judgments, relative to the solo headlight motorcycle, as ambient light levels reduced.
- [2012 – “Hazard Recognition Training Programs and Their Relationship to Executive Functions in Motorcyclists”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-hazard-recognition-training-programs-and-their-relationship-to-executive-functions-in-motorcyclists/) - This is an abstract of a conference paper with similar content as 2010 – “Preparing Riders to S.E.E. Better: MSF Tools for Improving Hazard Perception.” The purpose of the paper is to illustrate how hazard recognition training can transcend perceptual processes by appealing to a rider’s executive functions, which refers to mindfulness associated with keeping
- [2011 – “A Comparison of the Hazard Perception Ability of Accident-involved and Accident-free Motorcycle Riders”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-a-comparison-of-the-hazard-perception-ability-of-accident-involved-and-accident-free-motorcycle-riders/) - This is an abstract of the report. The results showed that both the divided and selective attention of accident-involved motorcycle riders were significantly inferior to those of accident-free motorcycle riders, and that accident-involved riders exhibited significantly higher driving violation behaviors and took longer to identify hazardous situations compared to their accident-free counterparts. The results
- [2006 – “A Comparison of Hazard Perception and Responding in Car Drivers and Motorcyclists”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2006-a-comparison-of-hazard-perception-and-responding-in-car-drivers-and-motorcyclists/) - Poor hazard perception skills have been shown to contribute to novice driver crash involvement. Yet driving and riding differ in terms of hazards, responses and consequences and many novice motorcyclists are experienced drivers. This paper follows the 2004 literature review “Hazard Perception, Attitudes and Behaviors in Riding” and presents results from the first stage of
- [2010 – “Preparing Riders to S.E.E. Better: MSF Tools for Improving Hazard Perception”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2010-preparing-riders-to-s-e-e-better-msf-tools-for-improving-hazard-perception/) - This paper was presented in support of the Vulnerable Road Users Conference and provides the background for the Motorcycle Safety Foundations developed programs in hazard perception. A unique aspect explored in this paper is the concept that hazard perception training should not only assist riders in developing their hazard perception skills, but to transcend the
- [2010 – “The Visual Search Patterns and Hazard Responses of Experienced and Inexperienced Motorcycle Riders”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2010-the-visual-search-patterns-and-hazard-responses-of-experienced-and-inexperienced-motorcycle-riders/) - This is an abstract of the research in which an open-loop motorcycle simulator was used to examine the effects of motorcycle riding and car driving experience on hazard perception and visual scanning patterns. The results point to the potential benefit of training hazard perception and visual scanning in motorcycle riders, as has been successfully demonstrated
- [2008 – “Hazard Perception and Responding by Experienced and Inexperienced Motorcyclists”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2008-hazard-perception-and-responding-by-experienced-and-inexperienced-motorcyclists/) - This is the third connected research report posted here: 2004 literature review, 2006 comparison of car drivers and motorcyclists and this analysis of experienced and inexperienced riders. The overall aim of the present project was to identify the fundamental skills that are required for expert hazard perception in motorcycle riding. In general, experienced riders were
- [2005 – “Motorcycle Accident Risk Could Be Inflated by a Time to Arrival Illusion](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2005-motorcycle-accident-risk-could-be-inflated-by-a-time-to-arrival-illusion/) - This is an abstract of the research report. Drivers adopt smaller safety margins when pulling out in front of motorcycles compared with cars. This could partly account for why the most common motorcycle/car accident involves a car violating a motorcyclist’s right of way. This research investigates possible reasons for this error in judgment. The authors
- [2003 – “A Behavioral Comparison between Motorcyclists and a Matched Group of Non-motorcycling Car Drivers: Factors Influencing Accident Risk”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2003-a-behavioral-comparison-between-motorcyclists-and-a-matched-group-of-non-motorcycling-car-drivers-factors-influencing-accident-risk/) - This is an abstract of the research. Motorcyclists and a matched group of non-motorcycling car drivers were assessed on behavioral measures known to relate to accident involvement. The authors found that motorcyclists chose faster speeds than the car drivers, overtook more, and pulled into smaller gaps in traffic, though they did not travel any closer
- [1997 – “To See or Not to See: The Need for Attention to Perceive Changes in Scenes”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/1997-to-see-or-not-to-see-the-need-for-attention-to-perceive-changes-in-scenes/) - This research shows that identification of changes in scenes (change blindness) becomes extremely difficult, even when changes are large and made repeatedly but with cues or when the changes are considered important they are identified much faster. These results support the idea that observers never form a complete, detailed representation of their surroundings. In addition,
- [1994 – “The Perception of Arrival Time for Different Vehicles at Intersections”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/1994-the-perception-of-arrival-time-for-different-vehicles-at-intersections/) - This is early research examining the factors related to decisions by drivers to make a left turn. The perceptual information to turn left appears from this research to be related to (a) the relative size of the vehicle; (b) the visibility of other vehicles; (c) the relative paths of other vehicles; (d) whether a vehicle
- [2001 - "Evaluation of the California Motorcyclist Safety Program"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2001-evaluation-of-the-california-motorcyclist-safety-program/) - This paper describes the evaluation activities undertaken to assess the program's impact on motorcycle accidents in California. In addition, the paper begins with a summary the key characteristics and conclusions of matched-sample studies conducted since the early 1980s. The report concludes "By any measure, the CMSP is a cost-effective Program that pays for itself
- [2017 – “Effects of Advanced (Anti-lock) Braking Systems (ABS) On Motorcycle Crashes”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2017-effects-of-advanced-anti-lock-braking-systems-abs-on-motorcycle-crashes/) - This report provides the results on an online survey of 61 motorcyclists who crashed between 2010 and 2015. The survey was carried out in 2016 focusing on motorcyclists who had crashed while riding a motorcycle fitted with Advanced (anti-lock) Braking Systems (ABS). The survey was a pilot study to identify specific issues relating to crashes
- [2013 – “The Effect of Sight Distance Training on the Visual Scanning of Motorcycle Riders: A Preliminary Look”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-the-effect-of-sight-distance-training-on-the-visual-scanning-of-motorcycle-riders-a-preliminary-look-2/) - This study collected naturalistic data from a mix of novice and experienced motorcycle riders on a closed course and an open course. A custom data acquisition system was developed that monitored the motorcycle rider’s head motions, visual behavior, motorcycle speed, GPS location, and motorcycle pitch, yaw, and roll. The preliminary findings suggest that there may
- [2016 – “Long-lasting Virtual Motorcycle-riding Trainer Effectiveness”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-long-lasting-virtual-motorcycle-riding-trainer-effectiveness/) - This work aimed to test the long-lasting effects of learning acquired with a virtual motorcycle-riding trainer as a tool to improve hazard perception. Virtual training was found to be highly effective and long lasting. This result should be compared to the mixed effectiveness found for traditional hands-on physical skills training.
- [2018 – “Allocating Attention to Detect Motorcycles - The Role of Inattentional Blindness](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-allocating-attention-to-detect-motorcycles-the-role-of-inattentional-blindness-2/) - This research concludes inattentional blindness (IB) provides a good psychological framework for understanding looked-but-failed-to-see crashes that occur with motorcycles.
- [2012 – “Training and Licensing Interventions for Risk Taking and Hazard Perception for Motorcyclists”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-training-and-licensing-interventions-for-risk-taking-and-hazard-perception-for-motorcyclists/) - The Centre for Accident Research & Road Safety – Queensland. This report identifies potential licensing components that will reduce the incidence of risky riding and improve higher-order cognitive skills in new riders. Collectively, the research findings indicate that evidence for the effectiveness of existing programs is sparse and implementation of interventions in licensing processes face
- [2005 – “Best Training Methods for Teaching Hazard Perception and Responding by Motorcyclists”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2005-best-training-methods-for-teaching-hazard-perception-and-responding-by-motorcyclists/) - The research suggests that simulators are best used as part of a comprehensive rider education system that includes classroom training and skills practice using real vehicles, with simulators being used to training riders in situations that are too dangerous to practice using a real vehicle. The cost of sufficient access to simulators may prevent this
- [2005 – “Hazard Perception and Responding by Motorcyclists: Background and Literature Review”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2005-hazard-perception-and-responding-by-motorcyclists-background-and-literature-review/) - This project is the first stage of a larger program of research into hazard perception training for motorcyclists. Future stages of the project will investigate what type of environment can be used to teach hazard perception and responding, for example a simulator environment or combination of off-road and simulator training. This report summarizes the research
- [2000 – “Hazard Perception by Inexperienced Motorcyclists”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2000-hazard-perception-by-inexperienced-motorcyclists/) - This project by Monash University Accident Research Centre had two aims: (1) to investigate how hazard perception and responding is affected by level of experience as a motorcycle rider and (2) to assess the extent to which hazard perception and responding can be improved by specific training. This report presents the results of a literature
- [2019 – “Contrasting Crash- and Non-Crash-Involved Riders: Analysis of Data from the Motorcycle Crash Causation Study”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2019-contrasting-crash-and-non-crash-involved-riders-analysis-of-data-from-the-motorcycle-crash-causation-study/) - This study examines motorcycle crash risk factors by employing data recently made available from the Federal Highway Administration Motorcycle Crash Causation Study (MCCS). The results of the study suggest that motorcycle crash risks are related to rider age, physical status, and educational attainment. In addition to such factors outside of the rider’s control, several modifiable
- [2017 - “Countermeasures That Work – Ch. # 5, Motorcyclist Safety”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2017-countermeasures-that-work-ch-5-motorcyclist-safety/) - National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Easy to read summaries of the research related to nine strategies in four categories. Each strategy is rated on effectiveness, cost, use and time to implement.
- [2019 - "What we can do - to what we do - so what we do actually works!"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2019-what-we-can-do-to-what-we-do-so-what-we-do-actually-works/) - SMARTER PowerPoint presentation at the 2019 State Motorcycle Safety Administrators (SMSA) conference held September 12-14 in Grand Rapids, MI. The information presented in the workshop is counterintuitive and challenges our common assumptions; however, the ideas are rooted in the available research. The belief that traditional rider training, motorist awareness communication campaigns and motorcycle license endorsements
- [2019 – “Learning a Curve Guardian for Motorcycles”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2019-learning-a-curve-guardian-for-motorcycles/) - Up to 17% of all motorcycle accidents occur when the rider is maneuvering through a curve and the main cause of curve accidents can be attributed to inappropriate speed and wrong intra-lane position of the motorcycle. Existing curve warning systems lack crucial state estimation components and do not scale well. We propose a new type
- [2017 – “Improving Motorcycle Safety by Enhancing Roadway Design”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2017-improving-motorcycle-safety-by-enhancing-roadway-design/) - Certain design elements, such as predictable road geometry, good visibility, obstacle-free zones and a high-quality road surface with high levels of skid resistance may be especially important to enhance the safety of motorcycles. While safety awareness campaigns and modified guardrails have proved to be effective countermeasures, ways to further enhance roadway design to improve motorcycle
- [2011 – “Car Drivers’ Attitudes and Visual Skills in Relation to Motorcyclists”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-car-drivers-attitudes-and-visual-skills-in-relation-to-motorcyclists/) - The analysis of collision data suggests that some of the most common motorcyclist collisions involve errors on behalf of other road users, for example car drivers who fail to give way to an approaching motorcycle at a T-junction. Following such accidents, car drivers often claim that they looked, but did not see the approaching motorcycle.
- [2011 – “Differences in Motorcycle Conspicuity-related Factors and Motorcycle Crash Severity in Daylight and Dark Conditions”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-differences-in-motorcycle-conspicuity-related-factors-and-motorcycle-crash-severity-in-daylight-and-dark-conditions/) - Using motorcycle crash data for Iowa from 2001 to 2008, this paper identified those motorcycle-conspicuity factors that could potentially relate to a collision between a motorcycle and another vehicle. Motorcycle conspicuity-related factors that were examined included: light conditions, helmet use, manner of crash, and motorcycle and “non-motorcycle” driver actions.
- [2018 – “Identifying Infrastructure-Based Motorcycle-Crash Countermeasures: Phase I Final Workshop Finding Report.”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-identifying-infrastructure-based-motorcycle-crash-countermeasures-phase-i-final-workshop-finding-report/) - In 2017, the Federal Highway Administration sponsored a project to identify three to five infrastructure-based motorcycle-crash countermeasures to consider for future research. To develop a list of prioritized infrastructure based motorcycle-crash countermeasures, a workshop was conducted. The workshop opened with an introduction (Power Point presentation) that provided participants with results from the prior tasks of
- [2019 - "Motorcyclists’ Attitudes on Using High-Visibility Gear to Improve Conspicuity: Findings From a Focus Group Study."](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2019-motorcyclists-attitudes-on-using-high-visibility-gear-to-improve-conspicuity-findings-from-a-focus-group-study/) - Prior research on multi-vehicle motorcycle crashes suggests that difficulty detecting motorcycles is a relevant factor. A potential countermeasure to this phenomenon is for a motorcycle rider to wear high-visibility gear, especially at night or in low-light conditions. Yet, many riders do not wear high-visibility gear. This report describes a study that explored why riders choose,
- [2018 – “Watch for motorcycles! The Effects of Texting and Handheld Bans on Motorcyclist Fatalities”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-watch-for-motorcycles-the-effects-of-texting-and-handheld-bans-on-motorcyclist-fatalities/) - This research examined whether state specific texting/handheld bans significantly influence motorcyclist fatalities. Although research is mixed on the effectiveness of texting/handheld bans for overall traffic fatalities, these findings indicate that motorcyclists are at elevated risk of being a victim of distracted driving and thus could greatly benefit from these policies. This study found a strong
- [2003 - “Alcohol Involvement in Fatal Motorcycle Crashes”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2003-alcohol-involvement-in-fatal-motorcycle-crashes/) - This report examined trends and rates of motorcycle riders (motorcyclists) killed in motor vehicle crashes during the ten year period 1990-1999 and the research notes compared the trends and rates in the report with the 2000 and 2001 data. This research note focuses in detail on the problem of alcohol involvement in fatal motorcycle crashes
- [2018 - “Traffic Safety Messages on Dynamic Message Signs (DMS)”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-traffic-safety-messages-on-dynamic-message-signs-dms/) - This technical assistance report investigated the existing state of practice across the nation for placing safety campaign messages on dynamic message signs (DMS) and reviewed relevant studies that documented any evidence of effectiveness in influencing driver behavior and providing a public safety benefit.
- [2018 – “Why Do Drivers Pull Out in Front of Motorcyclists?”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-why-do-drivers-pull-out-in-front-of-motorcyclists/) - This is an excellent current comprehensive review of the literature regarding the title topic. The review is written March 5, 2018 by Nathan Rose, Director and Principal of Kineticorp, LLC., (303)733-1888, (720)839-1995, www.nathanarose.com/blog, http://kineticorp.com). Note: SMARTER is providing this contact information as a thank you for the permission to post this article and no
- [2014 - "Evaluation Advanced Training Course for Motorcyclists - RISK"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2014-evaluation-advanced-training-course-for-motorcyclists/) - This is an evaluation of a one-day Dutch advanced rider training program called Risk. These results were published in 2015 under the title A Randomized Controlled Evaluation Study of the Effects of a One-day Advanced Rider Training (Accident Analysis & Prevention, Volume 79, June 2015, Pages 152-159). This one-day course teaches motorcyclists to recognize, analyze,
- [2018 – “Study on Motorcycle Safety in Negotiation with Horizontal Curves in Florida and Development of Crash Modification Factors”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-study-on-motorcycle-safety-in-negotiation-with-horizontal-curves-in-florida-and-development-of-crash-modification-factors/) - Motorcycle crashes are overrepresented on horizontal curves, especially along rural two-lane roads. Most roadway design and traffic control strategies on horizontal curves include limited considerations for motorcycles. It is necessary to conduct a study to investigate the factors contributing to motorcycle crash risk on horizontal curves and identify effective countermeasures to improve motorcycle safety. This
- [2016 – “Motorcycle Road Safety Audit Case Studies”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-motorcycle-road-safety-audit-case-studies/) - Road Safety Audits (RSAs) are a formal safety performance examination of an existing or future roadway or off-road facility and are conducted by an independent, experienced, multidisciplinary team. This case study document provides a review of the RSA process and three case study examples of RSAs that had a demonstrated high-frequency of crashes involving motorcyclists.
- [2005 – “Review of Motorcycle Licensing and Training”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2005-review-of-motorcycle-licensing-and-training/) - This research suggests that any safety benefits of motorcycle licensing and training probably result more from reductions in the total amount of riding than from reductions in crash risk per kilometer travelled. The system proposed should lead to improved safety outcomes because of the increased minimum age, longer provisional period and the greater duration of
- [2009 - “Motorcycle Collision Coverage Claims in States with Required Motorcycle Rider Training”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2009-motorcycle-collision-coverage-claims-in-states-with-required-motorcycle-rider-training/) - Researchers at the Highway Loss Data Institute (HLDI) analyzed motorcycle claims under collision coverage to see if crash risk is lower in states that require training for riders younger than 21, compared with states that don't require any training. The main finding is that the frequency of insurance collision claims for riders this age is
- [2014 - “The Role of Experience and Advanced Training on Performance in a Motorcycle Simulator”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2014-the-role-of-experience-and-advanced-training-on-performance-in-a-motorcycle-simulator/) - The current research assessed the impact of experience and advanced training on rider behavior using a motorcycle simulator. Novice riders, experienced riders and riders with advanced training traversed a virtual world through varying speed limits and roadways of different curvature. The results suggest that experience and advanced training lead to changes in behavior compared to
- [2015 - “Long-Lasting Virtual Motorcycle-Riding Trainer Effectiveness”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-long-lasting-virtual-motorcycle-riding-trainer-effectiveness/) - This work aimed to test the long-lasting effects of learning acquired with a virtual motorcycle-riding trainer as a tool to improve hazard perception. The present data confirm our main expectation that the effectiveness of the riding training simulator on the ability to cope with potentially dangerous situations persists over time and provides additional evidence in
- [2018 - “Emerging Practices for Addressing Motorcycle Crashes at Intersections”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-emerging-practices-for-addressing-motorcycle-crashes-at-intersections/) - This a US DOT Federal Highway Administration report that includes a review of existing literature on motorcycle-related infrastructure improvements at intersections, analysis of available data to quantify the crash, injury, and fatality risk for motorcyclists at intersections, identifying multiple State or local projects in which infrastructure treatments were implemented to specifically improve motorcycle safety, overall
- [2018 - "Estimate of Reduction in Deaths, Injuries, and Societal Costs in 2015 Michigan Motorcycle Crashes with Helmet Use"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-estimate-of-reduction-in-deaths-injuries-and-societal-costs-in-2015-michigan-motorcycle-crashes-with-helmet-use/) - A March 2018 report completed by Lidia P. Kostyniuk, Ph.D, P.E., Research Scientist, Emerita with the University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute calculating the reduction in monetary costs and deaths that would have been prevented in Michigan in 2015 if all riders involved in crashes would have worn a helmet.
- [2018 – “Current Trends in Motorcycle-related Crash and Injury Risk in Australia by Motorcycle Type and Attributes”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-current-trends-in-motorcycle-related-crash-and-injury-risk-in-australia-by-motorcycle-type-and-attributes/) - The purpose of this study was to characterize current and future motorcycle related road trauma to guide effective safety interventions and future research. A unique feature of the study was the ability to study factors affecting crash risk and injury outcomes for motorcyclists’ related to motorcycle type and other attributes including engine capacity and power
- [2015 – "Motorcycle Helmet Standards – Harmonization and Specialization?"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-motorcycle-helmet-standards-harmonization-and-specialization/) - With international trade agreements, on-line purchasing, and motorcycling growth there is a need to assess whether there is scope for harmonizing motorcycle helmet standards as well as specializing standards for specific environments. This paper will compare and contrast standards requirements and consider opportunities for improvements and international harmonization.
- [2010 – “Why do Car Drivers Fail to Give Way to Motorcycles at T-junctions?](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2010-why-do-car-drivers-fail-to-give-way-to-motorcycles-at-t-junctions/) - Studies of accident statistics suggest that motorcyclists are particularly vulnerable to collisions with other vehicles which pull out of side roads on to a main carriageway, failing to give way to the approaching motorcycle. Why might this happen? The typical response of the car driver is that they looked in the appropriate direction but simply
- [2015 - "Improving Car Drivers' Perception of Motorcycles: Innovative Headlight Design as a Short-term Solution to Mitigate Accidents"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-improving-car-drivers-perception-of-motorcycles-innovative-headlight-design-as-a-short-term-solution-to-mitigate-accidents/) - In order to reduce motorcycle accidents, and especially to improve motorcycle perceptibility (both detection and speed perception) by other vehicle drivers, ITS based on vehicle-to vehicle communication will probably provide effective long-term solutions (>15 years). But until then, other solutions have to be found and could quite easily be implemented, by considering innovative headlight configurations
- [2017 – “Common Motorcycle Crash Causes”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2017-common-motorcycle-crash-causes/) - Overall, in-depth motorcycle collision studies conclude that motorcycle accidents have different characteristics to collisions involving other road user groups. In particular, accidents involving motorcyclists are more likely to include right of way collisions, loss of control on bends and more frequent overtaking and passing maneuvers by motorcyclists. This is a section of a larger report
- [2011 – “Motorcycle Speeds at Urban Intersections”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-motorcycle-speeds-at-urban-intersections/) - This study examined motorcyclist speeds at intersections and concluded that in urban areas motorcycles are traveling significantly faster than other traffic. These findings are discussed against a concern to reduce motorcycle crashes at intersections where the car driver is deemed ‘at fault’.
- [2014 – “A New Helmet Testing Method to Assess Potential Damages in the Brain and the Head Due to Rotational Energy”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2014-a-new-helmet-testing-method-to-assess-potential-damages-in-the-brain-and-the-head-due-to-rotational-energy/) - This thesis contains an evaluation for a different developed method for testing oblique impacts. In consequence a new test rig was constructed with basis on a guided free fall of a helmeted dummy head striking an oblique (angled) anvil which will induce rotation. The results obtained are intended to be subjected to a comparison with
- [2013 – “Motorcycle Helmet Standards – Harmonisation and Specialisation?”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-motorcycle-helmet-standards-harmonisation-and-specialisation/) - This paper compares and contrasts standards requirements and considers opportunities for improvements and international harmonisation. A desktop review of standards, motorcycle helmet and relevant biomechanical literature was undertaken. The results of impact performance tests on 31 helmets that met at least AS/NZS 1698 and combinations of other standards were assessed by standard certification.
- [2018 – “The Danger Zone: Injuries and Conditions Associated with Immediately Fatal Motorcycle Crashes in the State of Michigan.”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-the-danger-zone-injuries-and-conditions-associated-with-immediately-fatal-motorcycle-crashes-in-the-state-of-michigan/) - Immediately fatal motorcycle crashes have not been well characterized. This study catalogues injuries sustained in fatal motorcycle crashes and assesses the impact of crash conditions on injury patterns. The two most prevalent injuries were traumatic brain injury (TBI) (85%) and rib fractures (79%). The majority of fatalities occurred in daylight hours (54.3%) and in a
- [1996 – “Motorcycle Crash Countermeasures Literature Review”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/1996-motorcycle-crash-countermeasures-literature-review/) - A report from Monash University, Australia. The review examined proposed countermeasures designed to prevent crashes or reduce injury in the event of a crash. The need for improvements in the measures or implementation of measures was discussed.
- [2018 – “Motorcycle Safety and Intelligent Transportation Systems Gap Analysis Final Report”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-motorcycle-safety-and-intelligent-transportation-systems-gap-analysis-final-report-2/) - This is a U. S. DOT sponsored report. Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) present an array of promising ways to improve motorcycle safety. While ITS technologies have predominantly targeted automobiles and commercial vehicles, little has been done to specifically address motorcycles or motorcycle safety. To help rectify this, this project surveyed a wide range of ITS
- [2018 - "Intelligent Transportation Systems and Motorcycle Safety"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-motorcycle-safety-and-intelligent-transportation-systems-gap-analysis-final-report/) - In comparison to the widespread advancement of safety-enhancing technologies for passenger vehicles, there has been only limited development of Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) for motorcycles. This review from Monash University, Australia investigated and discusses ITS according to their likely safety benefits to motorcycle safety.
- [2015 – “Road Safety Devices Assessment for Sliding Motorcyclists Protection”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-road-safety-devices-assessment-for-sliding-motorcyclists-protection/) - Statistics show that the impact with a roadside safety barrier of a motorcyclist sliding on the pavement after an accident is potentially more dangerous than the accident itself. In recent years, in effort to avoid the most serious consequences, the approach to barriers design changed and specific devices have been introduced to improve motorcyclists’ safety.
- [2014 – “Protecting Motorcyclists in Collisions with Roadside Barriers”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2014-protecting-motorcyclists-in-collisions-with-roadside-barriers/) - In this study, statistical analyses of motorcyclist collisions with fixed hazards indicate that posts and poles are significantly more hazardous to motorcyclists than roadside barriers regardless of barrier type or whether the barrier has been tested for motorcycle impact crashworthiness. This analysis supports the use of barriers in front of such fixed objects to improve
- [2013 – “Cable Median Barrier Program in Washington State](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-cable-median-barrier-program-in-washington-state/) - The purpose of this report is to summarize the evolution and accomplishments of the Washington State Department of Transportation’s (WSDOT’s) cable median barrier program. The objective of this program is to reduce fatal and serious injury collisions by targeting cross‐median crashes on high‐speed controlled access highways. This report compares crash rates before cable median barrier
- [2013 - “Motorcyclist Impacts into Roadside Barriers. Is the European Crash Test Standard Comprehensive Enough?”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-motorcyclist-impacts-into-roadside-barriers-is-the-european-crash-test-standard-comprehensive-enough/) - This paper reports on a study that reviewed the European Standard EN 1317-8 for motorists crashing into barriers and the relevance to Australian motorcycle fatalities. The data collection and analysis of 78 Australian motorcyclist-into-barrier fatalities described here were used to justify the review. Includes a review of the literature. A rub rail along the bottom
- [2010 - “Motorcycle Crashes into Roadside and Median Road Safety Barriers”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2010-motorcycle-crashes-into-roadside-and-median-road-safety-barriers/) - PowerPoint presentation describing Transport and Road Safety (TARS) Research, University of New South Wales.
- [2010 – “Fatal Motorcycle into Road Safety Barrier Crashes”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2010-fatal-motorcycle-into-road-safety-barrier-crashes/) - This paper presents an overview of key findings of a research project investigating motorcycle crashes into roadside safety barriers carried out at the University of New South Wales. Wire rope barriers were found to have around half the fatality rate of W beam and concrete barriers. No statistically significant association between barrier type, crash posture
- [2009 - “Overview of Motorcycle Crash Fatalities Involving Road Safety Barriers”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2009-overview-of-motorcycle-crash-fatalities-involving-road-safety-barriers/) - Many myths still pervade concerning how injuries occur when a motorcycle strikes a roadside barrier. The main reason is that there have been relatively few recent real world studies of such crashes. This paper presents some preliminary findings from a major research project.
- [2007 – “Ameliorating Motorcyclist Injury Risk from Flexible Barrier Collisions in Victoria”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2007-ameliorating-motorcyclist-injury-risk-from-flexible-barrier-collisions-in-victoria/) - Flexible barriers used over long lengths of roadway have shown great potential, especially in high-speed settings. However, there have been concerns that these barriers pose considerable injury risk to motorcyclists who strike them. In order to address these concerns, while still obtaining the safety benefits for the vast majority of road users, a number of
- [2006 – “Motorcyclists and Wire Rope Barriers”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2006-motorcyclists-and-wire-rope-barriers/) - Despite their good overall safety record for general road users, motorcyclists have raised concerns that the cable used in WRSBs may act as a ‘cheese cutter’ in the event of a collision by a motorcyclist, whilst exposed posts supporting the cable barrier may also increase the severity of any injury if struck by a motorcyclist
- [2005 – “The Influence of Wire Rope Barriers on Motorcyclists”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2005-the-influence-of-wire-rope-barriers-on-motorcyclists/) - A Master’s Thesis, the main part of the study concerns an assessment of the influence of wire rope barriers on motorcyclists speed, performance and choice of travel routes.
- [2003 – “Flexible Barrier Systems Along High-Speed Roads - A Lifesaving Opportunity”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2003-flexible-barrier-systems-along-high-speed-roads-a-lifesaving-opportunity/) - This report addresses the issue of run-off-road crashes in Victoria, through the large-scale use of flexible barriers along high-speed roads. The report identifies four possibilities for improving barriers for motorcyclists.
- [2000 – “Motorcycle and Safety Barrier Crash-Testing - Feasibility Study”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2000-motorcycle-and-safety-barrier-crash-testing-feasibility-study/) - While conventional barrier systems have performed well for the occupants of passenger cars, their effects on the safety of other road user groups, especially motorcyclists, is not well understood. The main purpose of this feasibility study was to recommend a research method for investigating the interactions between motorcycles and road safety barriers. A review of
- [2018 – “Neck Injury, Neck Pain and Preventative Measures.”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-neck-injury-neck-pain-and-preventative-measures/) - This is an October/September 2018 special edition of Riding Smart, the member newsletter of SMARTER. The research regarding helmets and neck injury is reviewed, the issue of neck pain and wearing a helmet is addressed and injury and pain preventative measures are discussed.
- [2018 – “Select Risk Factors Associated with Causes of Motorcycle Crashes.”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-select-risk-factors-associated-with-causes-of-motorcycle-crashes/) - This report released by The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) on October 2, 2018 analyzed select risk factors associated with the causes of motorcycle crashes and evaluated strategies for crash prevention. The NTSB makes recommendations to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, the Federal Highway Administration, the Motorcycle Industry Council, the American Motorcyclist Association, and
- [2016 - "The Efficacy of a Motocross Neck Brace in Reducing Injury"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-the-efficacy-of-a-motocross-neck-brace-in-reducing-injury/) - Neck and upper spine fracture account for approximately 10% of all injuries to motocross riders in a crash [Colburn, 2003]. To mitigate such injuries, neck braces have been designed and marketed as a countermeasure for neck injury during an impact. The objective of this study was to investigate the efficacy of a motocross neck brace
- [2010 - "Design and Numerical Evaluation of an Airbag Jacket for Motorcyclists](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2010-design-and-numerical-evaluation-of-an-airbag-jacket-for-motorcyclists/) - The need of passive safety devices, able to reduce the accidents and the severity of injuries suffered by motorcyclists, distinctly arises from data on accident statistics. In this paper, the effectiveness of an airbag device fitted in the biker's garments has been verified through various numerical simulations.
- [1987 - "An Evaluation of the Methodology and Results of J. P. Goldstein's Study"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/1987-an-evaluation-of-the-methodology-and-results-of-j-p-goldsteins-study/) - In this article, methodology and results of Goldstein's study are presented and evaluated, and evidence from other studies is presented. Due to methodological weaknesses in Goldstein's study, its results cannot be relied upon for policy formulation, particularly the repeal of mandatory helmet legislation.
- [2018 - Lives and Costs Saved by Motorcycle Helmets in 2016](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-lives-and-costs-saved-by-motorcycle-helmets-in-2016/) - This is a Traffic Safety Facts Research Note released in May 2018 based on crash data from 2016. In 2016 the use of motorcycle helmets saved an estimated 1,859 lives – if all riders had worn helmets and additional 802 lives could have been saved. Nearly $3.4 billion in economic costs and $21 billion in
- [2018 – “Allocating Attention to Detect Motorcycles: The Role of Inattentional Blindness.”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-allocating-attention-to-detect-motorcycles-the-role-of-inattentional-blindness/) - The objective of this research was to determine whether inattentional blindness (IB) can be used to understand the psychological mechanisms around looked-but-failed-to-see (LBFTS) crashes involving motorcycles. IB occurs when an observer looks directly at an object yet fails to see it, thus LBFTS crashes may be a real-world example of IB. The study tests a
- [2018 – “Motorcycle Helmets and Cervical Spine Injuries: a 5-year Experience at a Level 1 Trauma Center.](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-motorcycle-helmets-and-cervical-spine-injuries-a-5-year-experience-at-a-level-1-trauma-center/) - In this study, the authors investigate the association of helmet use with the incidence and severity of cervical spine injury. Helmeted motorcyclists demonstrated a significantly lower likelihood of sustaining a CSI. Additionally, unhelmeted riders demonstrated a proportionally higher number of cervical vertebral fractures. The results of this study demonstrate that motorcycle helmet use does not
- [2006 - “Are Car Drivers Holding a Motorcycle License Less Responsible for Motorcycle-car Crash Occurrence?: A Non-parametric Approach - Abstract”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2006-are-car-drivers-holding-a-motorcycle-license-less-responsible-for-motorcycle-car-crash-occurrence-a-non-parametric-approach-abstract/) - Drivers owning a motorcycle license turned out to be less responsible for motorcycle–car crashes than drivers who do not have one. It is reasonable to assume that car drivers who hold a motorcycle license have acquired more ability in riding and controlling two wheeled vehicles than drivers without a license, and this may help them
- [2011 - “Decisions about Objects in Real-world Scenes are Influenced by Visual Saliency Before and During their Inspection”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-decisions-about-objects-in-real-world-scenes-are-influenced-by-visual-saliency-before-and-during-their-inspection/) - The saliency of a critical vehicle was varied in the present task, as was the type of vehicle and the preferred vehicle of the viewer. Decisions were influenced by saliency, with more risky decisions when low saliency motorcycles were present. Given that the vehicles were invariably inspected, this may relate to the high incidence
- [2011 - “Errors in Judging the Approach Rate of Motorcycles in Nighttime Conditions and the Effect of an Improved Lighting Configuration”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-errors-in-judging-the-approach-rate-of-motorcycles-in-nighttime-conditions-and-the-effect-of-an-improved-lighting-configuration/) - This paper explores drivers’ abilities to make judgments of motorcycles and car approach speeds in nighttime driving conditions, when only the headlights are visible, as well as the effectiveness of a tri-headlight configuration on the accuracy of motorcycle speed judgments. The addition of a tri-headlight formation on a standard motorcycle frame significantly improved judgments.
- [2011 - “Evaluation of Motorcycle Conspicuity in a Car DRL Environment”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-evaluation-of-motorcycle-conspicuity-in-a-car-drl-environment-2/) - The advantage of the use of DRL exclusively by motorcycles is presently becoming lost by the increasing use of DRLs on cars. The present experiment aimed at evaluating the effects of car DRLs on motorcycle perception in a situation that specifically brought attentional conspicuity to bear. Car DRLs noticeably hampered motorcycle perception compared to conditions
- [2011 - “Motorcycle Right-of-Way Accidents:  A literature review”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-motorcycle-right-of-way-accidents-a-literature-review-2/) - The most typical automobile–motorcycle collision take places when an automobile maneuvers into the path of an approaching motorcycle by violating the motorcycle's right of way (ROW). This paper provides a comprehensive review of past research that examined motorcycle ROW accidents.
- [2012 - “Attention and Search Conspicuity as a Function of their Visual Context”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-attention-and-search-conspicuity-as-a-function-of-their-visual-context/) - Over the years, Powered-Two-Wheelers’ (PTWs’) numbers of accidents have increased dramatically and have accounted for a high percentage of the total traffic fatalities. The majority of those accidents occur in daylight, clear weather, and at light to moderate traffic conditions. The current study included two experiments. The first experiment evaluated the influence of PTW attention
- [2012 - “Exploring Factors Distinguishing Car-versus-Car from Car-versus Motorcycle in Intersection Crashes”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-exploring-factors-distinguishing-car-versus-car-from-car-versus-motorcycle-in-intersection-crashes/) - Abstract. This research examines car versus car (CVC) and car versus motorcycle CVM) crashes in New Zealand 2004 to 2009 police reports. The analyses show that CVM-type crashes are not easily distinguished from CVC type crashes. The two crash types are similar, contrary to overseas recent findings with four exceptions: CVM-type crashes occur more often
- [2012 - “Increasing Motorcycles Attention and Search Conspicuity by Using Alternating-Blinking Lights System (ABLS)”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-increasing-motorcycles-attention-and-search-conspicuity-by-using-alternating-blinking-lights-system-abls/) - Poor conspicuity of Powered Two-Wheelers (PTW) is one of the main factors contributing to their involvement in accidents. The current study examined the influence of different rider's outfits on PTWs’ detectability, and evaluated the potential of a unique Alternating-Blinking Lights System (ABLS) to increase the rider's conspicuity.
- [2014 - “A Different Perspective on Conspicuity Related Motorcycle Crashes”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2014-a-different-perspective-on-conspicuity-related-motorcycle-crashes/) - The concept of ‘looked-but-failed-to-see’ crashes is a recurring item. On the other hand, it is not entirely unexpected that motorcycles have many conflicts with cars; there simply are so many cars on the road. This paper tries to unravel whether – acknowledging the differences in exposure – car drivers indeed fail to yield for motorcycles
- [2014 - “Motorcyclist’s Lane Position as a Factor in Right-of-Way Violation Collisions: A Driving Simulator Study”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2014-motorcyclists-lane-position-as-a-factor-in-right-of-way-violation-collisions-a-driving-simulator-study-2/) - A driver turning left and failing to notice an oncoming motorcyclist until too late is the most common cause of motorcycle collisions. Consequently, much previous research has focused on motorcycle properties, such as size, shape, and color to explain its inconspicuousness. However, collision statistics remain largely unchanged, suggesting that the issue may not be related
- [2015 - “Powered-Two-Wheeler (PTW) Crashes and the Role of Perception”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-powered-two-wheeler-ptw-crashes-and-the-role-of-perception/) - This is a chapter of a larger report which examines the main determinants of riders’ accident risk that are related to conspicuity issues. It is an excellent overview of the issue. The authors perform a literature review to explore the role of conspicuity in PTW crash occurrences and organize PTW conspicuity risk factors in (i)
- [2016 - “Improving Motorcycle Conspicuity through Innovative Headlight Configurations”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-improving-motorcycle-conspicuity-through-innovative-headlight-configurations/) - The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of different headlight configurations on motorcycle detectability when the motorcycle is in visual competition with cars. The results revealed a beneficial effect of standard yellow configuration and the vertical yellow configuration on motorcycle detectability. However, this effect was modulated by the car-DRL environment. Findings and
- [2016 - “Role of Sensory and Cognitive Conspicuity in the Prevention of Collisions Between Motorcycles and Trucks at T-intersections”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-role-of-sensory-and-cognitive-conspicuity-in-the-prevention-of-collisions-between-motorcycles-and-trucks-at-t-intersections/) - Abstract. There is a considerable difference in height between motorcycles and trucks. Hence, the authors anticipated that the effects of motorcycle conspicuity treatments would be different for truck drivers. Therefore, the study aims to evaluate the effects of motorcycle conspicuity treatments on the identification and detection of motorcycles by truck drivers.
- [2013 - “Improving Car Drivers' Perception of Motorcyclists through Innovative Headlight Configurations”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-improving-car-drivers-perception-of-motorcyclists-through-innovative-headlight-configurations/) - The findings of the present study indicate that innovative motorcycle headlight ergonomics can improve motorcyclist safety by increasing the gaps accepted by automobile drivers when they turn left in front of a motorcycle. Among the headlight configurations tested, only light arrangements that accentuated the vertical dimension of the motorcycle/motorcyclist outline provided substantial improvements as compared
- [2014 - “Influence of Front Light Configuration on the Visual Conspicuity of Motorcycles”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2014-influence-of-front-light-configuration-on-the-visual-conspicuity-of-motorcycles/) - Three conspicuity enhancements designed to improve motorcycle detectability in a car-DRL environment were evaluated in comparison to the standard configuration. The results revealed better motorcycle-detection performance for both the yellow headlight and the helmet configuration than for the standard configuration.
- [2016 - “The Role of Lane Position in Right-of-Way Violation Collisions Involving Motorcycles”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-the-role-of-lane-position-in-right-of-way-violation-collisions-involving-motorcycles-2/) - This is the authors’ Master Degree thesis. Low motorcycle conspicuity is believed by many to be causally involved in motorcycle collisions that involve another driver. Because the hypothesis that motorcycles lack conspicuity in traffic is so intuitively appealing and so pervasive, it has never been tested. This work provides an argument against the notion that
- [2018 – “Countermeasures that Work - What the Research Tells Us”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-countermeasures-that-work-what-the-research-tells-us/) - This is the Jan./Feb. 2018 Special Edition of Riding Smart. It summarizes the major research and literature reviews which address countermeasures in motorcyclist safety. Countermeasures are the things we do to try to reach our goals. This special issue is designed to provide a quick reference summary of the research regarding countermeasures that work (or
- [2018 - “Conspicuity Research Summary”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2018-conspicuity-research-summary/) - A ten point summary of the conspicuity research compiled by SMARTER.
- [2016 - “The Role of Lane Position in Right-of-Way Violation Collisions Involving Motorcycles”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-the-role-of-lane-position-in-right-of-way-violation-collisions-involving-motorcycles/) - This is the authors’ Master Degree thesis. Low motorcycle conspicuity is believed by many to be causally involved in motorcycle collisions that involve another driver. Because the hypothesis that motorcycles lack conspicuity in traffic is so intuitively appealing and so pervasive, it has never been tested. This work provides an argument against the notion that
- [2014 - “Motorcyclist’s Lane position as a Factor in Right-of-Way Violation Collisions: A Driving Simulator Study”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2014-motorcyclists-lane-position-as-a-factor-in-right-of-way-violation-collisions-a-driving-simulator-study/) - A driver turning left and failing to notice an oncoming motorcyclist until too late is the most common cause of motorcycle collisions. Consequently, much previous research has focused on motorcycle properties, such as size, shape, and color to explain its inconspicuousness. However, collision statistics remain largely unchanged, suggesting that the issue may not be related
- [2011 - “Identification of Risk Factors Associated with Motorcycle Related Fatalities in Ohio”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-identification-of-risk-factors-associated-with-motorcycle-related-fatalities-in-ohio/) - Ohio crash data for 2003-2007 were used to investigate the odds of a motorcyclist being fatally injured in a crash and the risk factors involved. The results show that risk factors for fatality/severe injury significantly increase when the following circumstances apply: the motorcyclist is a female, being the motorcycle rider, use of excessive speeding, use
- [2011 - “Motorcycle Right-of-Way Accidents: A Literature Review - Abstract”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-motorcycle-right-of-way-accidents-a-literature-review-abstract/) - Two major causes of such a crash scenario are the lack of motorcycle conspicuity and motorist's speed/distance judgment error, respectively. Although various conspicuity aids have proven effective, some researchers reported that motorcyclist's/motorcycle's brightness per se may be less important as a determinant of conspicuity than brightness contrast between the motorcyclists and the surroundings. Research examining
- [2011 - “Motorcyclists’ Speed and “Looked-but-Failed-to-See” Accidents - Abstract”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-motorcyclists-speed-and-looked-but-failed-to-see-accidents-abstract/) - Previous research on motorcycle crashes has shown the frequency and severity of accidents in which a non-priority road user failed to give way to an approaching motorcyclist without seeing him/her, even though the road user had looked in the approaching motorcycle's direction and the motorcycle was visible. These accidents are usually called “looked-but-failed-to-see” (LBFS) accidents.
- [2009 – “A Review of Risk Factors and Patterns of Motorcycle Injuries”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2009-a-review-of-risk-factors-and-patterns-of-motorcycle-injuries/) - While lower-extremity injuries most commonly occur in all motorcycle crashes, head injuries are most frequent in fatal crashes. Helmets and helmet use laws have been shown to be effective in reducing head injuries and deaths from motorcycle crashes. Alcohol is the major contributing factor to fatal crashes. Enforcement of legal limits on the blood alcohol
- [2016 – “Study of In-vehicle Technology for Increasing Motorcycle Conspicuity”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-study-of-in-vehicle-technology-for-increasing-motorcycle-conspicuity/) - This study was conducted to determine whether adding in-vehicle technology to vehicles (not the motorcycle) resulted in increased driver awareness of motorcycles. The specific technology tested consisted of a warning light which illuminated on the vehicle’s instrument panel when the vehicle was near a motorcycle. Results showed that the in-vehicle technology significantly increased driver awareness
- [2011 - “Motorcyclists - A Literature Review and Exploratory Analysis”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-motorcyclists-a-literature-review-and-exploratory-analysis/) - This is an extensive overview conducted in the UK. The aim of this research is to identify whether there are any differences between serious and fatal road traffic collisions involving motorcyclists and examine ways of increasing safety and reducing casualty involvement through education, engineering and enforcement initiatives.
- [2011 – “Motorcycle Right-of-Way Accidents - A Literature Review”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-motorcycle-right-of-way-accidents-a-literature-review/) - This paper provides a comprehensive review of past research that examined motorcycle ROW accidents. Two major causes of such a crash scenario are the lack of motorcycle conspicuity and motorist's speed/distance judgment error, respectively.
- [2011 - “The Roles of Motorcyclists and Car Drivers in Conspicuity-related Motorcycle Crashes”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-the-roles-of-motorcyclists-and-car-drivers-in-conspicuity-related-motorcycle-crashes-2/) - This report discusses several measures and their potential effectiveness to reduce conspicuity-related motorcycle crashes. There is evidence that bright and reflective clothing has a positive effect on crash risk. However, it is difficult to recommend one type/color of clothing to improve conspicuity in all conditions. Conspicuity of a motorcycle is especially difficult from the front-view;
- [2008 - “Car Drivers’ Skills and Attitudes to Motorcycle Safety: A Review”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2008-car-drivers-skills-and-attitudes-to-motorcycle-safety-a-review/) - This report proposes a framework for interpreting the literature and evidence on car drivers’ skills and attitudes towards motorcyclists. The framework relates attitudes, knowledge and skills/strategies to three behaviors: Does the driver look at the motorcyclist? Does the driver realize that it is a motorcyclist? Does the driver correctly decide whether the motorcyclist poses a
- [2001 - “Factors and Status of Motorcycle Airbag Feasibility Research”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2001-factors-and-status-of-motorcycle-airbag-feasibility-research/) - To date, an airbag prototype which is beneficial and not injurious to riders of all sizes has not yet been found. Much of this research has been exploratory and involves the development of various airbag concepts as well as improvement and standardization of the research methodology used to evaluate such prototype systems.
- [2004 - “Braking Performance of Experienced and Novice Motorcycle Riders - Results of a Field Study”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2004-braking-performance-of-experienced-and-novice-motorcycle-riders-results-of-a-field-study/) - The average experienced motorcycle driver and novice drivers as well do not achieve braking deceleration suitable for road traffic. But if they use a motorcycle fitted with ABS after having received adequate instruction, they do. ABS should be mandatory equipment for every powered two-wheeler.
- [2006 - “A Comparison of Stopping Distance Performance for Motorcycles Equipped With ABS, CBS and Conventional Hydraulic Brake Systems”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2006-a-comparison-of-stopping-distance-performance-for-motorcycles-equipped-with-abs-cbs-and-conventional-hydraulic-brake-systems/) - A paper presented at 2006 International Motorcycle Safety Conference. In general, the test results demonstrated an improvement in braking performance with the use of ABS, whether braking on a dry or wet surface even compared with the best stops obtained without ABS. Without ABS, the rider required numerous attempts to approach the maximum deceleration performance
- [2008 - “Future Vehicle Stability Control Systems for Motorcycles with Focus on Accident Prevention”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2008-future-vehicle-stability-control-systems-for-motorcycles-with-focus-on-accident-prevention/) - The motorcycle accidents influenced by this system are only a small portion of the mentioned accidents, so as a result of this study, the potential for future vehicle dynamic control systems that help prevent non-braking cornering accidents is estimated quite low.
- [2009 - “Insurance Special Report -Motorcycle Antilock Braking System”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2009-insurance-special-report-motorcycle-antilock-braking-system/) - Significant reductions in collision claim frequencies and overall losses were found for motorcycles equipped with ABS. This study also includes an analysis of medical payment coverage, which typically pays for operator injuries, and bodily injury liability coverage, which typically pays for passenger injuries.
- [2009 - “Anti-Lock Braking and Vehicle Stability Control for Motorcycles – Why or Why Not?”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2009-anti-lock-braking-and-vehicle-stability-control-for-motorcycles-why-or-why-not/) - A paper presented at the proceedings of the 21st International Technical Conference on Enhanced Safety of Vehicles. Studies were carried out to examine the safety potential of Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS) and Vehicle Stability Control (VSC) for motorcycles by means of accident analysis, driving tests and economical as well as technical assessment of the systems.
- [2009 -“Effectiveness Evaluation of Antilock Brake Systems (ABS) for Motorcycles in Real-world Accident Scenarios](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2009-effectiveness-evaluation-of-antilock-brake-systems-abs-for-motorcycles-in-real-world-accident-scenarios/) - A paper presented at proceedings of the 21st International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles. Several real accident scenarios without ABS were analyzed under the condition that an ABS system would have been installed on the motorbike. With such an approach the difference in the accident consequences with and without ABS can be
- [2009 - “The Effectiveness of Antilock Brake Systems on Motorcycles in Reducing Real-life Crashes and Injuries”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2009-the-effectiveness-of-antilock-brake-systems-on-motorcycles-in-reducing-real-life-crashes-and-injuries/) - Findings show that head-on collisions were the least ABS-affected crash types and collisions at intersections the most influenced. Induced exposure analysis showed that the overall effectiveness of ABS was 38 percent on all crashes with injuries and 48 percent on all severe and fatal crashes, with a minimum effectiveness of 11 and 17 percent, respectively.
- [2011 - “Effectiveness of Antilock Braking Systems in Reducing Motorcycle Fatal Crash Rates”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-effectiveness-of-antilock-braking-systems-in-reducing-motorcycle-fatal-crash-rates/) - The rate of fatal motorcycle crashes per 10,000 registered vehicle years was 37 percent lower for ABS models than for their non-ABS versions. ABS appears to be highly effective in preventing fatal motorcycle crashes based on some early adopters of motorcycle ABS technology.
- [2012 - “Perspectives for Motorcycle Stability Control Systems”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-perspectives-for-motorcycle-stability-control-systems/) - A giant leap towards safer motorcycles is the application of ABS. Even today’s systems that are still improvable would be socio-economically sensible with a benefit-cost-ratio of more than four. The impact on accident figures is estimated to be at least a 10% reduction. Concluding from these results, all motorcycles should be equipped with ABS. Further
- [2013 - “Assessing the Potential Benefits of the Motorcycle Autonomous Emergency Braking (MAEB) using Detailed Crash Reconstructions”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-assessing-the-potential-benefits-of-the-motorcycle-autonomous-emergency-braking-maeb-using-detailed-crash-reconstructions/) - The MAEB proved to be beneficial in a large number of cases. When applicable, the benefits of the system were in line with the expected values. When not applicable, there was no clear evidence of an increased risk for the rider due to the system.
- [2013 - “Effects of Antilock Braking Systems on Motorcycle Fatal Crash Rates: An Update”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-effects-of-antilock-braking-systems-on-motorcycle-fatal-crash-rates-an-update/) - ABS was associated with a 31 percent reduction in the rate of fatal motorcycle crashes per 10,000 registered vehicle years. Conclusions: Further evidence shows that ABS is highly effective in preventing fatal motorcycle crashes.
- [2014 - “Further Development of Motorcycle Autonomous Emergency Braking (MAEB), What Can In-depth Studies Tell Us - A Multinational Study”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2014-further-development-of-motorcycle-autonomous-emergency-braking-maeb-what-can-in-depth-studies-tell-us-a-multinational-study/) - Author's Original Manuscript of an article published in Traffic Injury Prevention. This research is the first attempt to evaluate MAEB with simulations on a broad range of crash scenarios using in-depth data. The results give further insights into the feasibility of MAEB in different speed ranges. It is clear then that MAEB is a promising
- [2015 -“Feasibility Study of Airbag Concept Applicable to Motorcycles without Sufficient Reaction Structure”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-feasibility-study-of-airbag-concept-applicable-to-motorcycles-without-sufficient-reaction-structure/) - Abstract. Through the crash tests, beneficial protection effects of the airbag system were confirmed in particular impact configurations. No significant risk for the occupant due to the airbag was observed in the conducted crash tests. It was concluded that the proposed airbag system has feasibility to reduce rider injury in a collision of a motorcycle
- [2015 - “Effectiveness of Antilock-Brakes (ABS) on Motorcycles in Reducing Crashes, a Multi-national Study”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-effectiveness-of-antilock-brakes-abs-on-motorcycles-in-reducing-crashes-a-multi-national-study/) - This study set out to evaluate the effectiveness of Antilock-Brakes (ABS) on motorcycles in reducing real-life crashes. The effectiveness of motorcycle ABS in reducing injury crashes ranged from 24% in Italy to 29% in Spain and 34% in Sweden. The reduction of severe and fatal crashes was even greater, at 34% and 42% in Spain
- [2015 - “Adoption of Anti-lock Braking Systems (ABS) for Motorcycles in Australia”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-adoption-of-anti-lock-braking-systems-abs-for-motorcycles-in-australia/) - Discussion paper. Discussion of the research conducted by Monash University Accident Research Centre on the Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Motorcycle Anti-Lock Braking Systems on Motorcycle Safety in Australia.
- [2015 - “Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Anti-Lock Braking Systems on Motorcycle Safety in Australia”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-evaluation-of-the-effectiveness-of-anti-lock-braking-systems-on-motorcycle-safety-in-australia/) - Findings showed the presence of ABS on the studied motorcycles resulted in a 33% in a reduction in all injuries in relevant crash types and 39% reduction in severe injuries.
- [2015 - “The Combined Benefits of Motorcycle Antilock Braking Systems (ABS) in Preventing Crashes and Reducing Crash Severity”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-the-combined-benefits-of-motorcycle-antilock-braking-systems-abs-in-preventing-crashes-and-reducing-crash-severity/) - Abstract. This article indicated that motorcycle ABS reduced impairing injuries, mostly due to fewer emergency care visits but also due to a reduction in crash severity, however, the lower extremities would be more exposed in a crash with ABS.
- [2016 - “An Examination of Motorcycle Antilock Brake Systems in Reducing Crash Risk”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-an-examination-of-motorcycle-antilock-brake-systems-in-reducing-crash-risk/) - Abstract. The results support the hypothesis that ABS is effective in reducing the crash risk in some crash types. However, it was found that the case-control approach does not incorporate all factors that might influence the overall effectiveness of ABS.
- [2016 - “Does the Improved Stability Offered by Motorcycle Antilock Brakes (ABS) Make Sliding Crashes Less Common? In-depth Analysis of Fatal Crashes Involving Motorcycles Fitted with ABS”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-does-the-improved-stability-offered-by-motorcycle-antilock-brakes-abs-make-sliding-crashes-less-common-in-depth-analysis-of-fatal-crashes-involving-motorcycles-fitted-with-abs/) - Abstract. Though this research was based on a limited material, it confirmed that sliding fatal crashes are significantly decreased by ABS. These findings should be taken into account in the future design and testing of motorcycle-friendly road barriers and integrated protection systems.
- [2016 - “Towards a Safe System Approach to Prevent Health Loss among Motorcyclists”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-towards-a-safe-system-approach-to-prevent-health-loss-among-motorcyclists/) - Doctoral thesis. The findings indicated that Motorcycle ABS reduced emergency care visits by 47%. The severity of the crashes that did occur was lower, which reduced the overall risk of sustaining impairing injuries, although leg injuries were not addressed to the same extent. It was also found that almost 90% of fatal crashes with ABS
- [2017 - “Are Automatic Systems the Future of Motorcycle Safety?”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2017-are-automatic-systems-the-future-of-motorcycle-safety/) - Abstract describing a knowledge-based system of motorcycle safety (KBMS) was developed to assess the potential for various safety solutions to mitigate or avoid motorcycle crashes. Results revealed that automatic systems have the greatest potential to improve motorcycle safety
- [2017 – “Direct Medical Costs of Motorcycle Crashes in Ontario”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2017-direct-medical-costs-of-motorcycle-crashes-in-ontario/) - Researchers found that each registered motorcycle in Ontario costs the public health care system 6 times the amount of each registered automobile and conclude medical costs may provide an additional incentive to improve motorcycle safety.
- [2017 – “Motorcycle Crashes and Some Guidance to Avoid Them”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2017-motorcycle-crashes-and-some-guidance-to-avoid-them/) - This is a PowerPoint presentation providing information regarding the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute Naturalistic Studies, including the Motorcycle Safety Foundation 100 (MSF 100) and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 160 (NHTSA 160).
- [1981 – “The Hurt Report Summary of Findings”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/1981-the-hurt-report-summary-of-findings-2/) - Fifty-five significant findings.
- [1981 – “The Hurt Report Summary of Findings”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/1981-the-hurt-report-summary-of-findings/) - Fifty-five significant findings.
- [2017 - "Federal Highway Administration Motorcycle Crash Causation Study"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2017-federal-highway-administration-motorcycle-crash-causation-study/) - This is a presentation by Carol H. Tan, Ph.D., Office of Safety Research & Development, Federal Highway Administration at the 2017 SMSA Conference Sept 28, 2017. The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Motorcycle Crash Causation Study (MCCS) is the most comprehensive data collection effort to study the causes of motorcycle crashes in the United States in
- [2016 - “Correlation Between Crash Avoidance Maneuvers and Injury Severity Sustained by Motorcyclists in Single-vehicle Crashes”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-correlation-between-crash-avoidance-maneuvers-and-injury-severity-sustained-by-motorcyclists-in-single-vehicle-crashes/) - Abstract. In order to improve motorcycle safety, this article examines the correlation between crash avoidance maneuvers and injury severity sustained by motorcyclists, under multiple precrash conditions. To improve motorcycle safety, training/educational programs should be considered to improve safety awareness and adjust driving habits of motorcyclists.
- [2009 - “Simulation of Motorcycle Crashes with W-beam Guardrail: Injury Patterns and Analysis”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2009-simulation-of-motorcycle-crashes-with-w-beam-guardrail-injury-patterns-and-analysis/) - Abstract. This study uses computer simulations to study the impact of a motorcycle with the conventional w-beam guardrail. In light of the results, the authors suggest that the design of guardrails should be reviewed with a focus on the safety of motorcyclists.
- [1976 - “Injury Mechanisms and Motorcycle Design”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/1976-injury-mechanisms-and-motorcycle-design/) - This is an International Research Council on Biomechanics of Injury conference paper. The authors report “There were six male occupants who sustained injuries to the perineum, scrotum, testicles or penis. All were operating the motorcycles and were involved in Ejected and Non-ejected collisions. Three were carrying passengers, which may have increased the chance of this
- [1981 – “Motorcycle Accident Cause Factors and Identification of countermeasures Volume I: Technical Report”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/1981-motorcycle-accident-cause-factors-and-identification-of-countermeasures-volume-i-technical-report/) - The 1981 Hurt Report dedicates eight pages (220-228) to reporting data regarding groin injuries. The authors report “Early in the course of data collection, it became apparent that a substantial number of riders (and some passengers) complained of injury to the groin and often diffuse abdominal pain. In most instances this was associated with a
- [1981 – “Groin Injuries in Motorcycle Accidents”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/1981-groin-injuries-in-motorcycle-accidents/) - This is an abstract of a conference presentation. The authors were part of the “Hurt Study” investigation team and report on the findings. One hundred seventeen of the 900 riders (13%) sustained some type of groin injury, overwhelmingly in frontal collisions involving another vehicle. About 5% of those 117 involved severe injuries such as pubic
- [1993 – “Fuel Tanks of Motorcycles. Role in Severe Trauma of the Pelvis”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/1993-fuel-tanks-of-motorcycles-role-in-severe-trauma-of-the-pelvis/) - Abstract. The author’s report of patient severe pelvic lesions as a result of motor cycle accidents his call for study to evaluate the frequency of these particular injuries and draw lessons that would lead to better safety of motorcyclists.
- [1994 – “Motorcycle Petrol Tanks and their Role in Severe Pelvic Injuries”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/1994-motorcycle-petrol-tanks-and-their-role-in-severe-pelvic-injuries/) - Abstract. Nine patients who sustained severe pelvic lesions as a result of motorcycle accidents were admitted to and treated in the authors' department. The author recommends a national epidemiological study would be useful to evaluate the frequency of such injuries and to draw conclusions leading to improved safety for motorcyclists.
- [2002 – “MADYMO Simulation, Reconstruction, and Biomechanical Analysis of Motorcycle Crashes”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2002-madymo-simulation-reconstruction-and-biomechanical-analysis-of-motorcycle-crashes/) - This is the title of the original research which was presented as Pelvic Injury Potential and Motorcycle Gas Tanks at the 2006 International Research Council on Biomechanics of Injury conference. Main finding was an exponential increase in both probable pelvic injuries and severity as the height and steepness of the rear of a motorcycle’s gas
- [2016 – “Motorcycle Fuel Tanks and Pelvic Fractures: A Motorcycle Fuel Tank Syndrome”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-motorcycle-fuel-tanks-and-pelvic-fractures-a-motorcycle-fuel-tank-syndrome-2/) - Abstract. This study aimed to investigate the mechanisms involved in pelvic injuries to crashed motorcyclists. The most frequent cause of pelvic injuries in crashed motorcyclists was due to contact with the motorcycle fuel tank during the crash (85%). The authors conclude improvements in the design of crashworthy motorcycle fuel tanks appear to be required.
- [2017 – “Motorcycle Fuel Tank Design and Pelvic Injury: Summary of Research”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/httpsmarter-usa-org2017-motorcyle-fuel-tank-design-and-pelvic-injury-smarter-research-summary/) - A SMARTER document summarizing this topic.
- [2003 – “Crotch Rocket Pelvic Fractures”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2003-crotch-rocket-pelvic-fractures/) - The change in trends in motorcycle design means that users of these machines are more prone to pelvic trauma if involved in a direct collision. The high riding fuel tank is in direct contact with the lower abdomen and pelvis when in the normal, prone, riding position. In a direct collision, the fuel tank is
- [2006 – “Pelvic Injury Potential and Motorcycle Gas Tanks”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2006-pelvic-injury-potential-and-motorcycle-gas-tanks/) - This is a presentation paper from the 2006 International Research Council on Biomechanics of Injury conference of the findings of the 2002 research MADYMO Simulation, Reconstruction, and Biomechanical Analysis of Motorcycle Crashes.
- [2006 – “Dangerous Designs? Read this, and you’ll Never Look at a Motorcycle the Same Way Again”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2006-dangerous-designs-read-this-and-youll-never-look-at-a-motorcycle-the-same-way-again/) - This article in Motorcycle Consumer News examines the tank design/groin issue in depth but also goes on to address how gas tank angle contributes to how – or even whether – the rider is ejected from the bike and how ejection is connected to the possibility of rotational brain injury. Moon’s article also addresses how
- [2007 – “A Two-rider Motorcycle Accident Involving Injuries Around Groin Area in Both the Driver and the Passenger”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2007-a-two-rider-motorcycle-accident-involving-injuries-around-groin-area-in-both-the-driver-and-the-passenger/) - Abstract. This paper presents a two-rider motorcycle accident in which both riders received injuries around the groin area. This study reveals that passengers can also suffer from injuries around the groin area.
- [2014 – “Pelvic Injury Potential and Motorcycle Gas Tanks”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2014-pelvic-injury-potential-and-motorcycle-gas-tanks/) - Paper presented at the 2014 International Research Council on Biomechanics of Injury conference. This study demonstrates that contact with the motorcycle fuel tank is a major cause of pelvic injury in motorcycle crashes, and these predominantly occur in frontal or oblique collision configurations. It was noted that riders of cruisers were more likely to sustain
- [2015 – “Can a Boxer Engine Reduce Leg Injuries Among Motorcyclists? Analysis of Injury Distributions in Crashes Involving Different Motorcycles Fitted with Antilock”](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-can-a-boxer-engine-reduce-leg-injuries-among-motorcyclists-analysis-of-injury-distributions-in-crashes-involving-different-motorcycles-fitted-with-antilock/) - The overall motorcycle design can vary across different categories and manufacturers. For instance, some motorcycles are equipped with boxer-twin engines; that is, with protruding cylinder heads. A previous study based on a limited material has suggested that these could provide some leg protection; therefore, the aim of this research was to analyze injury distributions in
- [2007 - "Fatal Two-Vehicle Motorcycle Crashes"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2017-fatal-two-vehicle-motorcycle-crashes/) - A NHTSA report that analyzed fatal two-vehicle motorcycle crashes for trends and crash characteristics using FARS data of crashes in 2005, including findings as to the role motorcycle operators played in crash causation.
- [2007 - "Role of Operators"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2017-role-of-operators/) - Summary of Findings regarding the role of the motorcyclist from Fatal Two-Vehicle Motorcycle Crashes.
- [2012 - "Hi Viz: The Way to G(l)o? An Investigation of Motorcycle Rider Use of and Attitudes Towards High Visibility Gear"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-hi-viz-the-way-to-glo-an-investigation-of-motorcycle-rider-use-of-and-attitudes-towards-high-visibility-gear/) - This study was conducted in New Zealand. There is some evidence that shows that High Visibility Gear (HVG) can improve motorcyclists’ safety, but the use of HVG is currently low. The study found that the most important barriers to wearing HVG that motorcyclists identified were cost, image and practicality.
- [2017 - "Safety Effects of Horizontal Curve Design on Motorcycle Crash Frequency on Rural, Two-Lane, Undivided Highways in Florida"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2017-safety-effects-of-horizontal-curve-design-on-motorcycle-crash-frequency-on-rural-two-lane-undivided-highways-in-florida/) - The association between horizontal curve design (e.g., radius and type) on rural, two-lane, undivided highways and motorcycle crash frequency is not well documented in existing reports and publications. This study aimed to investigate the effects of design parameters and associated factors on the occurrence of motorcycle crashes with consideration of the issue of unobserved heterogeneity.
- [2017 - "Modeling Safety Effects of Horizontal Curve Design on Injury Severity of Single-Motorcycle Crashes with Mixed-Effects Logistic Model"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2017-modeling-safety-effects-of-horizontal-curve-design-on-injury-severity-of-single-motorcycle-crashes-with-mixed-effects-logistic-model/) - The impacts of horizontal curve design on motorcycle crash injuries are not well documented in previous studies. The current study aimed to investigate and to quantify the effects of horizontal curve design and associated factors on the injury severity of single-motorcycle crashes with consideration of the issue of unobserved heterogeneity.
- [2008 - "Lower-Extremity Injuries in Motorcycle Crashes"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2008-lower-extremity-injuries-in-motorcycle-crashes/) - This study aims to define the characteristics of lower-extremity injuries among motorcyclists involved in traffic crashes. The results of this study provide information on the cost of different types of lower-extremity injuries and long-term disabilities that might result from these types of injuries.
- [2017 - "The Effects of Motorcycle Helmet Legislation on Craniomaxillofacial Injuries"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2017-the-effects-of-motorcycle-helmet-legislation-on-craniomaxillofacial-injuries/) - Benefits of helmet use in motorcycle trauma patients are well documented. In 2012, Michigan repealed its universal motorcycle helmet law in favor of a partial helmet law. The authors describe the early clinical effects on facial injuries throughout Michigan. Compared with helmeted trauma patients, unhelmeted patients were nearly twice as likely to sustain craniomaxillofacial injuries
- [2017 - "Long-Term Effect of Universal Helmet Law Changes on Motorcyclist Fatal Crashes"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2017-long-term-effect-of-universal-helmet-law-changes-on-motorcyclist-fatal-crashes/) - In this study, the authors have attempted to explore the long-term impacts of repeal and reinstatement of Universal Helmet Laws (UHL) by using 13 to 16 years of data. The results showed that the UHL repeal still had significant negative effects on motorcyclist fatal crash counts even 7 to 12 years after the repeal of
- [2016 - "The United Nations Motorcycle Helmet Study"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-the-united-nations-motorcycle-helmet-study/) - This study exhibits that up to 3.4 million deaths might result from motorcycle crashes between 2008 and 2020. As many as 1.4 million of those fatalities can be avoided with the proper use of safety helmets. A policy on wearing motorcycle helmets is, therefore, essential for promoting safety.
- [2017 - "Powered Two- and Three-wheeler Safety. A Road Safety Manual for Decision-makers and Practitioners"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2017-powered-two-and-three-wheeler-safety-a-road-safety-manual-for-decision-makers-and-practitioners/) - This manual published by the World Health Organization provides information for use in developing and implementing comprehensive measures to improve PTW safety. It examines the extent of PTW related fatalities and injuries, and the importance of addressing the key risk factors or PTW crashes. The steps outlined for conducting a situational assessment aim to help
- [2016 - "Impact of Helmet Use on Injury and Financial Burden of Motorcycle and Moped Crashes in Hawai'i"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-impact-of-helmet-use-on-injury-and-financial-burden-of-motorcycle-and-moped-crashes-in-hawaii/) - This study sought to quantify, on a statewide level, the healthcare burden of unhelmeted motorcycle and moped riders. Protective associations with helmet use are stronger among motorcyclists than moped riders, suggesting the protective effect is augmented in higher speed crashes. The public financial burden is higher from unhelmeted riders who sustain more severe injuries and
- [2015 - "Alcohol-related Hospitalizations of Adult Motorcycle Riders"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-alcohol-related-hospitalizations-of-adult-motorcycle-riders/) - The objective of this study was provide an overview of the demographic characteristics of adult motorcycle riders with alcohol-related hospitalizations. The study was conducted at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, a 2400-bed facility and level I regional trauma center that provides care to trauma patients primarily from the southern region of Taiwan. Motorcycle riders who
- [1957 - "Skull Busting for Safety"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/1957-skull-busting-for-safety/) - The impetus for the development of helmet standards arose as a result of the death of William Snell in 1956 in an amateur auto racing accident. His crash helmet had failed to protect him. George Snively, a medical doctor and race course physician at the time of Snell’s death, had already begun an investigation of
- [1998 - "Motorcycle Helmet Test Head-form and Test Apparatus Comparison"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/1998-motorcycle-helmet-test-head-form-and-test-apparatus-comparison/) - This is an extensive comparison in which the authors conclude the test headforms and test apparatus show, there is little harmony in international motorcycle helmet standards. Comparisons of equipment or performance criteria must be carefully scrutinized in order to distinguish those few items that can be directly compared.
- [1998 - "Helmet Development and Standards"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/1998-helmet-development-and-standards/) - An article by Edward Becker of the Snell Memorial foundation that provides an excellent historical overview of motorcycle helmet development and the introduction and development of motorcycle helmet standards.
- [2001 - "Head Injury Mechanisms in Helmet-Protected Motorcyclists: Prospective Multi-center Study"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2001-head-injury-mechanisms-in-helmet-protected-motorcyclists-prospective-multi-center-study/) - Three research groups collected data from motorcycle crashes between July 1996 and July 1998 to investigate head injury mechanisms in helmet-protected motorcyclists. The authors conclude a modification of the design of the helmet shell may have a preventative effect on DFE lesions, which are caused by a high amount of direct force transfer. Acceleration or
- [2005 - "Technical Response - Blowing the Lid Off"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2005-technical-response-blowing-the-lid-off/) - This is a response from the Snell Memorial Foundation to the contention put forth in the magazine article that Snell helmets are too hard and transmit too high a G loading to the head. Note: the current standards are not the same as the standards reported in this article.
- [2005 - "Motorcycle Helmet Performance: Blowing the Lid Off"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2005-motorcycle-helmet-performance-blowing-the-lid-off/) - This is the magazine article by Dexter Ford that examined the debate about how strong and how stiff a helmet should be to provide the best possible protection. Why the debate? Because if a helmet is too stiff it can be less able to prevent brain injury in the kinds of crashes you're most likely
- [2006 - "Comparison Tests of Motorcycle Helmets Qualified to International Standards"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2006-comparison-tests-of-motorcycle-helmets-qualified-to-international-standards/) - This is the helmet testing commissioned by Motorcyclist Magazine editors Mitch Boehm and Dexter Ford and used for the basis of "Blowing the Lid Off," the groundbreaking article revealing the claimed flaws of Snell M2005 helmet safety standard. These tests were designed to compare the helmets’ relative performance under identical, realistic test conditions rather than
- [2008 - "Comparison of Safety Helmet Testing Standards"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2008-comparison-of-safety-helmet-testing-standards/) - This document compares several safety helmet standards in force in different parts of the world with the EU standards ECE 22_05. Initially the parts of the ECE 22_05 concerning mechanical testing are summarized, then BS 6658:1985 (UK), FMVSS 218 (USA), Snell M2005 and AS/NZS 1698 are examined and the main differences with respect to the
- [2010 - "Analysis of Helmet Impact Velocity Experimental Data and Statistical Tolerance Design"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2010-analysis-of-helmet-impact-velocity-experimental-data-and-statistical-tolerance-design/) - Helmet impact velocity experimental data is analyzed and various factors that influence the impact velocity are studied. One of the main goals of this report is to verify whether a tolerance of +/- 3 percent of mean velocity is feasible and will allow at least 95 percent of impacts to fall within the proposed impact
- [2011 - "Laboratory Test Procedure for FMVSS No. 218 Motorcycle Helmets"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-laboratory-test-procedure-for-fmvss-no-218-motorcycle-helmets/) - This document is provided by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), Office of Vehicle Safety Compliance (OVSC) for the purpose of presenting procedures for uniform testing and providing suggestions for the use of specific equipment for contracted testing laboratories.
- [2012 - "Voluntary and Mandatory Motorcycle Helmet Standards"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-voluntary-and-mandatory-motorcycle-helmet-standards/) - A paper by Edward Becker, Snell Memorial Foundation in which he explores what he asserts are the inadequacies of DOT and ECE 22-05 and compares their demands for protective capability to voluntary standards for motorcycle helmets. He concludes that much more protective capability can be demanded of motorcycle helmets with no appreciable differences in cost,
- [2012 - "Head Injury and Effective Motorcycle Helmets"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-head-injury-and-effective-motorcycle-helmets/) - Most motorcycle helmet standard requirements have remained substantially the same for 40 years, while over the same period our understanding of causes of injury to the brain has been rapidly improving. This study defines some areas where motorcycle helmet effectiveness in preventing brain injury can be improved.
- [2012 - "Assessing the Effectiveness of a Natural Cellular Material Used as Safety Padding Material in Motorcycle Helmets"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-assessing-the-effectiveness-of-a-natural-cellular-material-used-as-safety-padding-material-in-motorcycle-helmets/) - This work studied the efficiency of cork as a material dedicated to energy absorption under impact loading.
- [2013 - "Motorcycle Helmets - A State of the Art Review"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-motorcycle-helmets-a-state-of-the-art-review-2/) - Truly a state of the art review. Over 220 references. Motorcycle helmets are widely used, required in most countries and are the most effective means of protection available for a motorcyclist to protect his head during an accident. It is possible to conclude from this paper that there is nowadays a global acceptance of what
- [2015 - "Motorcycle Helmet Impact Response at Various Levels of Severity for Different Standard Certifications"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-motorcycle-helmet-impact-response-at-various-levels-of-severity-for-different-standard-certifications/) - This conference report reviews the results of a study comparing the Snell and DOT standards for helmet protective performance in impacts at varying levels of severity.
- [1986 - "The Effect of Motorcycle Helmet Use on the Probability of Fatality and the Severity of head and Neck Injuries: A Latent Variable Framework"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/1986-the-effect-of-motorcycle-helmet-use-on-the-probability-of-fatality-and-the-severity-of-head-and-neck-injuries-a-latent-variable-framework/) - This is the controversial study by Goldstein that concluded that (1) motorcycle helmets have no statistically significant effect on the probability of fatality; (2) helmets reduce the severity of head injuries; and (3) past a critical impact speed, helmets increase the severity of neck injuries.
- [2003 - "Head and Neck Injuries in Fatal Motorcycle Collisions as Determined by Detailed Autopsy"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2003-head-and-neck-injuries-in-fatal-motorcycle-collisions-as-determined-by-detailed-autopsy/) - Abstract. Both helmeted and unhelmeted motorcyclists showed a high frequency of occult neck injuries such as hemorrhages in the carotid sheath or surrounding the vertebral arteries, phrenic nerve, or brachial plexus.
- [2009 - "Helmets for Preventing Injury in Motorcycle Riders (Review)"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2009-helmets-for-preventing-injury-in-motorcycle-riders-review/) - This is an extensive review of the literature comparing helmeted versus nonhelmeted riders on six (6) different crash outcomes. One of those outcomes was neck injury. Twelve (12) studies were identified that used neck injury as an outcome. The authors reported that the data could not support any conclusion about the possible association between helmet
- [2011 - "Motorcycle Helmets Associated with Lower Risk of Cervical Spine Injury: Debunking the Myth"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-motorcycle-helmets-associated-with-lower-risk-of-cervical-spine-injury-debunking-the-myth/) - The objective of this study was to determine the impact of motorcycle helmets on the likelihood of developing a cervical spine injury after a motorcycle collision. Helmeted riders had a lower adjusted odds and a lower proportion of cervical spine injury compared with nonhelmeted riders. Helmeted motorcyclists are less likely to suffer a cervical spine
- [2011 - "Relationship between Cervical Spine Injury and Helmet Use in Motorcycle Road Crashes"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-relationship-between-cervical-spine-injury-and-helmet-use-in-motorcycle-road-crashes/) - Abstract. This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of motorcycle helmets and the ways in which the accidents that occurred affected the incidence of cervical spine injury. It was found in frontal collisions, the use of helmets significantly reduces the severity of cervical spine injury, whereas in rear-end, side impact, and skidded accidents, the
- [2013 - "Helmets and Neck Injuries in Fatal Motorcycle Crashes"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-helmets-and-neck-injuries-in-fatal-motorcycle-crashes/) - A common objection to helmet use is the fear that any benefit in preventing brain injuries may by offset by increased neck injuries, especially spinal cord injuries. A little known follow-on study to the so-called Hurt Study investigated this hypothesis in detail. Helmeted riders were no more likely than unhelmeted riders to suffer spinal
- [2015 - "The Effect of Various Types of Motorcycle Helmets on Cervical Spine Injury in Head Injury Patients: A Multi-center Study in Taiwan"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-the-effect-of-various-types-of-motorcycle-helmets-on-cervical-spine-injury-in-head-injury-patients-a-multicenter-study-in-taiwan/) - The relationship between cervical spine injury (CSI) and helmet use in head injury (HI) patients following motorcycle crashes is crucial. Controversy still exists; therefore the authors evaluated the effect of various types of helmets on CSI in HI patients following motorcycle crashes and researched the mechanism of this effect. The HI patients using a helmet
- [2016 - "Motorcycle Helmet Use and the Risk of Head, Neck, and Fatal Injury: Revisiting the Hurt Study"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-motorcycle-helmet-use-and-the-risk-of-head-neck-and-fatal-injury-revisiting-the-hurt-study/) - The authors of this study replicated the 1986 Goldstein models to understand how he obtained his unexpected results, and then applied modern statistical methods to estimate the association of motorcycle helmet use with head injury, fatal injury, and neck injury among collision-involved motorcyclists. The authors found Goldstein’s analysis to be critically flawed due to improper
- [2000 - "Evaluation of Motorcycle Helmet Law Repeal in Arkansas and Texas"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2000-evaluation-of-motorcycle-helmet-law-repeal-in-arkansas-and-texas/) - The report summary states in the first full year (1998) following repeal of their universal motorcycle helmet laws, both Arkansas and Texas experienced increases in motorcycle operator fatalities compared with the last year (1996) of the universal law. Arkansas EMS data show an increase in the number of injured motorcyclists, the number of motorcyclists with
- [2005 - "Evaluation of the Repeal of the All-Rider Motorcycle Helmet Law in Florida"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2005-evaluation-of-the-repeal-of-the-all-rider-motorcycle-helmet-law-in-florida/) - Based on the evidence evaluated in this study the increase in motorcycle fatalities that occurred after the Florida motorcycle helmet law was repealed is due in part to the reduced use of helmets. The analysis shows this is the case despite the pre-existing trend of increasing fatalities, the increase in fatalities associated with increased exposure
- [2007 - "Motorcycle Safety and the Repeal of Universal Helmet Laws"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2007-motorcycle-safety-and-the-repeal-of-universal-helmet-laws/) - This study assessed the implications for motorcyclist safety of recent repeals of universal helmet laws in 6 US states. The authors conclude on average, when compared to state experience with no helmet mandate, universal helmet laws were associated with an 11.1% reduction in motorcyclist fatality rates, whereas rates in states with partial coverage statutes were
- [2008 - "Changes in Motorcycle-Related Head Injury, Deaths, Hospitalizations, and Hospital Charges Following Repeal of Pennsylvania’s Mandatory Motorcycle Helmet Law"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2008-changes-in-motorcycle-related-head-injury-deaths-hospitalizations-and-hospital-charges-following-repeal-of-pennsylvanias-mandatory-motorcycle-helmet-law-2/) - To evaluate the 2003 repeal of Pennsylvania’s motorcycle helmet law, the authors assessed changes in helmet use and compared motorcycle related head injuries with nonhead injuries from 2001–2002 to 2004–2005. Helmet use among riders in crashes decreased, head injury deaths increased, nonhead injury deaths increased, motorcycle related head injury hospitalizations increased. The authors conclude the
- [2010 - "The Effect of the 1997 Texas Motorcycle Helmet Law on Motorcycle Crash Fatalities"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2010-the-effect-of-the-1997-texas-motorcycle-helmet-law-on-motorcycle-crash-fatalities/) - Abstract. The authors conclude repeal of the universal helmet law in Texas in 1997 has had a significant adverse effect on motorcyclist fatalities in Texas.
- [2012 - "Helmeted vs Nonhelmeted: A Retrospective Review of Outcomes From 2-Wheeled Vehicle Accidents at a Level 1 Trauma Center"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-helmeted-vs-nonhelmeted-a-retrospective-review-of-outcomes-from-2-wheeled-vehicle-accidents-at-a-level-1-trauma-center-2/) - This study was conducted in Florida. The findings suggest that the age and insurance exemption of the law should be revoked and a universal helmet law be reinstated in the state of Florida. Motorcycle helmets significantly reduce overall morbidity and mortality, improve discharge outcome, and are cost-effective in healthcare savings.
- [2014 - "Repeal of the Michigan Helmet Law: Early Clinical Impacts"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2014-repeal-of-the-michigan-helmet-law-early-clinical-impacts/) - This is the initial study (see Repeal of the Michigan Helmet Law: The Evolving Clinical Impact - 2016) evaluating the clinical impacts at a level one trauma center of the repeal of the Michigan helmet law. The study highlights the negative ramifications of repealing a mandatory helmet law. Motorcyclists not wearing helmets increased significantly
- [2014 - "Michigan’s Motorcycle Helmet Law Repeal: Using Data to Illustrate Its Effect"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2014-michigans-motorcycle-helmet-law-repeal-using-data-to-illustrate-its-effect/) - This is a one-page chart describing the results of Analysis of Motorcycle Crashes in Michigan 2009-2013.
- [2014 - "Analysis of Motorcycle Crashes in Michigan 2009-2013"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2014-analysis-of-motorcycle-crashes-in-michigan-2009-2013/) - The goal of this analysis is to assess the consequences of the modification to the motorcycle helmet law that took effect on April 13, 2012, based on crash data from 2009-2013. The key areas of interest include: 1) changes in fatality and injury rates due to helmet non-use; 2) helmet use rates among crash-involved riders,
- [2016 - "Repeal of the Michigan Helmet Law: The Evolving Clinical Impact"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-repeal-of-the-michigan-helmet-law-the-evolving-clinical-impact/) - This research examined the impact of the repeal of Michigan’s 35-year mandatory helmet law in April 2012 on a level 1 trauma center. A retrospective cohort study comparing the 7-month period before and the 3 motorcycle seasons after the helmet law repeal. This is the second published study (see Repeal of the Michigan Helmet Law:
- [2016 - "The Impact of Michigan’s Partial Repeal of the Universal Motorcycle Helmet Law on Helmet Use, Fatalities, and Head Injuries"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-the-impact-of-michigans-partial-repeal-of-the-universal-motorcycle-helmet-law-on-helmet-use-fatalities-and-head-injuries/) - Conducted by School of Medicine and the Transportation Research Institute of the University of Michigan, the objective of this research was to evaluate the impact of the partial repeal of Michigan’s universal motorcycle helmet law on helmet use, fatalities, and head injuries. The authors found Michigan’s partial universal helmet law repeal decreased helmet use and
- [2007 - "Summary of Novelty Helmet Performance Testing"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2007-summary-of-novelty-helmet-performance-testing/) - The novelty helmets tested performed significantly worse than any helmet that complies with FMVSS No. 218. In general, noncompliant novelty helmets will not protect motorcycle riders during motorcycle crashes from either impact or penetration threats, and will not likely be retained on motorcycle riders’ heads during crashes. Novelty helmets present motorcycle riders with a higher
- [2010 - "Motorcycle Helmet Impact Response: Comparison of Helmet Type and Impact Severity"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2010-motorcycle-helmet-impact-response-comparison-of-helmet-type-and-impact-severity/) - The goal of this study was to compare, over a wide range of impact speeds, the impact attenuation performance of a number of common helmets varying from an inexpensive, non-approved beanie helmet to high-end, DOT- and Snell-approved full-face helmets. Based on these data, beanie helmets provide scant protection against head injury. The approved helmets behaved
- [2011 - "Effectiveness of Different Types of Motorcycle Helmets and Effects of their Improper Use on Head Injuries"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-effectiveness-of-different-types-of-motorcycle-helmets-and-effects-of-their-improper-use-on-head-injuries-2/) - The researchers conclude: This study demonstrates that the type and fastening status of a helmet can affect the helmet’s effectiveness in preventing head injuries. For a long time, injury prevention workers have focused on whether or not motorcycle riders wear a helmet, rather than on which helmet type should be worn or how the helmet
- [2014 - "How Safe Is Your Motorcycle Helmet?"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2014-how-safe-is-your-motorcycle-helmet/) - Motorcycle crash helmets do not totally prevent head and facial trauma. The aim of this study was to investigate if protection offered by helmets differs according to helmet type. The results show Facial Injury Severity Scale score was significantly higher for unhelmeted riders compared with fullface helmet riders and no difference between unhelmeted riders and
- [2015 - "The Effect of Various Types of Motorcycle Helmets on Cervical Spine Injury in Head Injury Patients: A Multi-center Study in Taiwan"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-the-effect-of-various-types-of-motorcycle-helmets-on-cervical-spine-injury-in-head-injury-patients-a-multi-center-study-in-taiwan/) - The relationship between cervical spine injury (CSI) and helmet in head injury (HI) patients following motorcycle crashes is crucial. Controversy still exists; therefore, in this study the researchers evaluated the effect of various types of helmets on CSI in HI patients following motorcycle crashes and researched the mechanism of this effect. The authors conclude wearing
- [2016 - "The Preventive Effect of Head Injury by Helmet Type in Motorcycle Crashes: A Rural Korean Single-Center Observational Study"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-the-preventive-effect-of-head-injury-by-helmet-type-in-motorcycle-crashes-a-rural-korean-single-center-observational-study-2/) - The goal of this study was to determine the preventive effect on head injury by helmet type: full face helmet (FFH), open face helmet (OFH), and half-coverage helmet (HCH). FFHs and OFHs reduce the risk of head injury, and FFHs have a more preventive effect on head injury in motorcycle crashes.
- [1991 - "Motorcycle Helmet Laws Save Lives and Reduce Costs to Society"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/1991-motorcycle-helmet-laws-save-lives-and-reduce-costs-to-society-2/) - This is a Government Accountability Office (GOA) report which evaluates studies on motorcycle helmet laws. The report summarizes a review of the literature on (1) the effectiveness of helmets in preventing deaths and serious injuries, (2) the effect of helmet laws on helmet use and fatality rates, and (3) the costs that society incurs when
- [2001 - "Helmet Laws and Motorcycle Rider Death Rates"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2001-helmet-laws-and-motorcycle-rider-death-rates/) - This study investigated motorcycle rider death rates between states with full motorcycle helmet laws and those without. After controlling for other factors that affect motorcycle rider fatalities (most notably population density and temperature), death rates in states with full helmet laws were shown to be lower on average than deaths rates in states without full
- [2006 - "The Effectiveness of Motorcycle Helmets and Mandatory Helmet Laws"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2006-the-effectiveness-of-motorcycle-helmets-and-mandatory-helmet-laws/) - Louisiana crash data are used to assess the effectiveness of motorcycle helmets in crashes and the effectiveness of mandatory helmet laws. The Louisiana crash data which are unique in that the motorcycle helmet law was changed several times, in 1968, 1976, 1982, 1999 and 2004, show that helmets significantly reduce the risk of fatal and
- [2007 - "Characteristics of Motorcycle-related Hospitalizations: Comparing States with Different Helmet Laws"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2007-characteristics-of-motorcycle-related-hospitalizations-comparing-states-with-different-helmet-laws/) - This study compares U.S. motorcycle-related hospitalizations across states with differing helmet laws. Results revealed that motorcyclists hospitalized from states without universal helmet laws are more likely to die during the hospitalization, sustain severe traumatic brain injury, be discharged to long-term care facilities, and lack private health insurance. This study further illustrates and substantiates the increased
- [2008 - "Evaluation of the Reinstatement of the Helmet Law in Louisiana"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2008-evaluation-of-the-reinstatement-of-the-helmet-law-in-louisiana/) - Louisiana has enacted and repealed motorcycle helmet laws many times. In 1999, the State amended that law to require helmet use only by motorcyclists under 18 and riders over 18 who did not have a minimum of $10,000 in medical insurance coverage. In 2004, Louisiana reinstated its universal helmet law that required all motorcyclists, riders
- [2008 - "An Analysis of Motorcycle Helmet Use in Fatal Crashes"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2008-an-analysis-of-motorcycle-helmet-use-in-fatal-crashes/) - This report examined the helmet use of motorcycle riders 21 and older involved in fatal crashes. Factors that were found to be the most highly correlated with a motorcycle rider’s helmet use include the following: the existence of a universal helmet law, the motorcycle rider’s age and blood alcohol concentration, the engine size of the
- [2009 - "Public Policies and Motorcycle Safety"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2009-public-policies-and-motorcycle-safety/) - State-level longitudinal data from 1990 to 2005 are analyzed to determine how various alcohol and traffic policies impact motorcycle safety and whether there are differential effects by type of injury. The results consistently show that universal helmet laws have the most significant effect on both non-fatal and fatal injuries.
- [2009 - "Impact of Motorcycle Helmets and State Laws on Society's Burden: A National Study"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2009-impact-of-motorcycle-helmets-and-state-laws-on-societys-burden-a-national-study-2/) - Abstract. This large database study clearly shows that helmets provide protection for motorcycle riders from mortality and other injuries. Head injury is also less severe. Health care resource utilization, measured by intensive care unit (ICU) and hospital stays, is also diminished. Because more non-helmeted riders do not have health insurance, helmets therefore reduce societal costs
- [2010 - "Youth Motorcycle-Related Brain Injury by State Helmet Law Type: United States, 2005-2007"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2010-youth-motorcycle-related-brain-injury-by-state-helmet-law-type-united-states-2005-2007-2/) - The results of this study highlight and quantify the head-injury risks of different partial-age helmet laws for young riders and offers caution for the many states that have or are considering replacement of universal all-age laws with age specific laws. States with youth-specific laws had an increased risk of traumatic brain injury (TBI) that required
- [2011 - "Intracranial Injury and Mortality Associated with Motorcycle-Related Hospitalizations: Differences in Incidence and Costs on the Basis of Universal Helmet Use Legislation in the United States"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-intracranial-injury-and-mortality-associated-with-motorcycle-related-hospitalizations-differences-in-incidence-and-costs-on-the-basis-of-universal-helmet-use-legislation-in-the-united-states/) - This is a thesis paper with a title that describes the purpose. The author’s conclusion is the incidence of intracranial injury as a result of motorcycle-related crashes is higher, in states without a universal motorcycle helmet use law.
- [2012 - "Helmeted vs Nonhelmeted: A Retrospective Review of Outcomes From 2-Wheeled Vehicle Accidents at a Level 1 Trauma Center"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-helmeted-vs-nonhelmeted-a-retrospective-review-of-outcomes-from-2-wheeled-vehicle-accidents-at-a-level-1-trauma-center/) - This research addresses the impact of Florida’s helmet law repeal. In this study, the authors analyzed all 2-wheeled vehicle accidents evaluated at a level 1 trauma center over a 5-year period, comparing all outcomes, costs, and insurance status for helmeted and nonhelmeted riders. The findings suggest that the age and insurance exemption of the law
- [2012 - "Motorcycle Helmet Use and Legislation: A Systematic Review of the Literature"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-motorcycle-helmet-use-and-legislation-a-systematic-review-of-the-literature/) - This is a review the literature on motorcycle helmet use and helmet laws as they pertain to injury prevention. The authors conclude the evidence for the protective effects of motorcycle helmets is very strong. There is convincing evidence that motorcycle helmet use reduces both traumatic brain injuries and death after collisions. A preponderance of evidence
- [2013 - "Use of Motorcycle Helmets: Laws Mandating Use - Risk of Bias Assessment"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-use-of-motorcycle-helmets-laws-mandating-use-risk-of-bias-assessment/) - This is a table associated with the Community Preventive Services Task Force extensive review of the literature. It presents an assessment of the risk of bias for the 60 United States based helmet law assessment studies included in the review.
- [2013 - "Use of Motorcycle Helmets: Universal Helmet Laws: Summary Evidence Table - Effectiveness Evidence"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-use-of-motorcycle-helmets-universal-helmet-laws-summary-evidence-table-effectiveness-evidence/) - This is a table describing each of the separate research studies examined by the Community Preventive Services Task Force. Each of the 71 studies with 78 study arms are described including authors, year published, intervention characteristics, population characteristics, outcome and summary. This is the “Cliff Notes” for reviewing 71 different research reports examining the effectiveness
- [2013 - "Use of Motorcycle Helmets, Universal Helmet Laws: Finding and Recommendation"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-use-of-motorcycle-helmets-universal-helmet-laws-finding-and-recommendation/) - This is the finding and recommendation of an extensive review of the literature conducted by the Community Preventive Services Task Force. The Task Force recommendation is based on strong evidence of effectiveness from 71 studies with 78 study arms; 67 study arms evaluated motorcycle helmet laws in the U.S. (search period through August 2012). Comparison
- [2015 - "Impact of North Carolina’s Motorcycle Helmet Law on Hospital Admissions and Charges for Care of Traumatic Brain Injuries"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-impact-of-north-carolinas-motorcycle-helmet-law-on-hospital-admissions-and-charges-for-care-of-traumatic-brain-injuries-2/) - Hospital admissions of North Carolina motorcyclists with traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) and associated hospital charges in 2011 were extracted from the North Carolina Hospital Discharge Data system. The authors estimated hospital admissions and charges for the same year under the counterfactual condition of North Carolina without a universal motorcycle helmet law by using various substitutes
- [2016 - "Motorcycle Helmet Effectiveness in Reducing Head, Face and Brain Injuries by State and Helmet Law"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-motorcycle-helmet-effectiveness-in-reducing-head-face-and-brain-injuries-by-state-and-helmet-law-3/) - In this research medical outcomes were compared between partial and universal helmet law settings. Medical charges and rates of head, facial, and brain injuries among motorcyclists were lower in universal law states.
- [2007 - "Paternalism and its Discontents: Motorcycle Helmet Laws, Libertarian Values, and Public Health"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2007-paternalism-and-its-discontents-motorcycle-helmet-laws-libertarian-values-and-public-health/) - During the past 3 decades, federal government efforts to push states toward enactment of universal helmet laws have faltered, and motorcyclists’ advocacy groups have been successful at repealing state helmet laws. This history raises questions about the possibilities for articulating an ethics of public health that would call upon government to protect citizens from their
- [2008 - "Motorcycle Helmet Laws: The Facts, What Can be Done to Jump-Start Helmet Use, and Ways to Cap the Damages"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2008-motorcycle-helmet-laws-the-facts-what-can-be-done-to-jump-start-helmet-use-and-ways-to-cap-the-damages-2/) - Written by neurosurgeon and attorney, Melissa Neiman, we consider this extensively referenced report one of the best for providing background and coverage of the issues related to motorcycle helmet use and the impact of all-rider helmet laws.
- [2009 - "Motorcycle Helmets and Rider Safety: A Legislative Crisis"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2009-motorcycle-helmets-and-rider-safety-a-legislative-crisis-2/) - Abstract. The authors examine state motorcycle helmet laws in the United States, demonstrate their effectiveness, and tell how opponents have challenged their implementation leading to weakening or repeal.
- [2013 - "Mandating the Use of Motorcycle Helmets: What are the Issues?"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-mandating-the-use-of-motorcycle-helmets-what-are-the-issues/) - An easy to read seven page articles which provides a summary of the issues and argues from the point of view of medical professionals. The authors argue that surgeons need to play a role in public policy decisions that relate to health care, including the debate over helmet laws. The authors noted that in any
- [2013 - "Repeal of Michigan’s Universal Helmet Law: The Cost of Freedom"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-repeal-of-michigans-universal-helmet-law-the-cost-of-freedom/) - Published in Thomas M. Cooley Law Review this article traces the repeal of Michigan’s all-rider helmet law, reviews the evidence related to the effectiveness of all-rider laws, and concludes “The (partial helmet) law will be detrimental to riders and citizens who will be responsible for the costs associated with accidents. At a minimum, the solutions
- [2015 - "Preventing Head Trauma and Saving Lives: Universal Helmet Law in Texas"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-preventing-head-trauma-and-saving-lives-universal-helmet-law-in-texas/) - The authors of this report state “it is important to recognize during the policy making process for motorcycle helmets, a public health problem is being addressed.” The report provides a brief background and addresses social, economic, ethical and political factors related to an all-rider helmet law.
- [2016 - "Federally Mandating Motorcycle Helmets in the United States"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-federally-mandating-motorcycle-helmets-in-the-united-states-2/) - Although statewide universal motorcycle helmet laws effectively increase helmet use, most state helmet laws do not require every motorcycle rider to wear a helmet. The authors propose and outline the solution of implementing a federal motorcycle helmet law, while addressing potential counterarguments. According to the authors helmet use fits squarely within the purview of the
- [2016 - "The Case of the Missing Motorcycle Helmet Mandates: Why has a Universal Motorcycle Helmet Law Not Been Passed in the U.S. Even with Strong Scientific Evidence that Supports such a Measure?"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-the-case-of-the-missing-motorcycle-helmet-mandates-why-has-a-universal-motorcycle-helmet-law-not-been-passed-in-the-u-s-even-with-strong-scientific-evidence-that-supports-such-a-measure/) - The purpose of this report is to examine the main reasons for why universal motorcycle helmet mandates have not yet been passed in the U.S. This report concludes that the values and objectives of motorcyclist associations, and the mobilized coalition that has resulted, are the main obstacles preventing the passing universal helmet laws. The report
- [1998 - "Further Analysis of Motorcycle Helmet Effectiveness Using CODES Linked Data"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/1998-further-analysis-of-motorcycle-helmet-effectiveness-using-codes-linked-data/) - Linked data from the Crash Outcome Data Evaluation System (CODES) in seven states were used by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration as the basis of a 1996 Report to Congress on the Benefits of Safety Belts and Motorcycle Helmets. This study measured motorcycle helmet effectiveness using mortality, morbidity, severity and costs. The CODES data
- [2003 - "Effectiveness of Collision-involved Motorcycle Helmets in Thailand"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2003-effectiveness-of-collision-involved-motorcycle-helmets-in-thailand/) - This is a unique study design that focuses on examination of the collision-involved helmet. Observable helmet damage is not an indication of head injury. In different cases with different crash circumstances, it is possible for a helmet to be significantly damaged and no head injury will be present because the helmet provided adequate protection. Conversely,
- [2004 - "Motorcycle Safety Helmet Effectiveness Study"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2004-motorcycle-safety-helmet-effectiveness-study/) - Abstract. This is a special report by the Virginia Commonwealth University Transportation Safety Training Center Crash Investigation Team. The purpose of the study was to compare unhelmeted riders involved in serious crashes with helmeted riders in similar crashes. One main factor identified in this study is that riders who wear approved safety helmets decrease their
- [2004 - "Motorcycle Helmet Effectiveness Revisited"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2004-motorcycle-helmet-effectiveness-revisited/) - This is a National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) report that uses data from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS) to estimate helmet effectiveness. This report looks at data from 1993 through 2002 and is a “revisit” to an earlier report that used data from 1982 through 1987. The earlier report found helmets to be
- [2004 - "Helmets for Preventing Injury in Motorcycle Riders"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2004-helmets-for-preventing-injury-in-motorcycle-riders/) - Abstract. This is an earlier version of the 2008 Cochrane Collaboration literature review. Fifty-three observational studies were identified of varying quality. Motorcycle helmets appear to reduce the risk of mortality although, due to heterogeneity in study design, an overall estimate of effect was not calculated. There was some evidence that the effect of helmets on
- [2008 - "Helmets for Preventing Injury in Motorcycle Riders (Review)"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2008-helmets-for-preventing-injury-in-motorcycle-riders-review/) - This is a high quality literature review by The Cochrane Collaboration. Sixty-one observational studies were selected of varying quality. Despite methodological differences there was a remarkable consistency in results, particularly for death and head injury outcomes. Motorcycle helmets were found to reduce the risk of death and head injury in motorcyclists who crashed. Helmets were
- [2009 - "Motorcycle Helmet Use and Head and Facial Injuries"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2009-motorcycle-helmet-use-and-head-and-facial-injuries-2/) - This report examines the relationship between motorcycle helmet use and motorcycle crash outcomes in terms of injury types, hospital charges, and other variables employing data from the Crash Outcome Data Evaluation System (CODES), a program facilitated by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Helmeted motorcyclists were less likely to experience facial and head injuries compared
- [2009 - "Impact of Motorcycle Helmets and State Laws on Society's Burden: A National Study"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2009-impact-of-motorcycle-helmets-and-state-laws-on-societys-burden-a-national-study/) - Abstract. Unhelmeted motorcycle crash patients suffer more severe brain injuries, consume more resources, and have the worst payor mix.
- [2009 - "Risk Factors for Riding and Crashing a Motorcycle Unhelmeted"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2009-risk-factors-for-riding-and-crashing-a-motorcycle-unhelmeted/) - Abstract. This 13-year (1994-2006) retrospective study of adult motorcycle crashes admitted to a Level II trauma center compares helmeted to unhelmeted motorcyclists. The author’s conclusion is clear and simple: Unhelmeted motorcyclists sustain more severe injuries and adverse outcomes.
- [2010 - "An Evidence-Based Review: Helmet Efficacy to Reduce Head Injury and Mortality in Motorcycle Crashes"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2010-an-evidence-based-review-helmet-efficacy-to-reduce-head-injury-and-mortality-in-motorcycle-crashes/) - This is a high quality review of the literature. Forty-five studies from more than 500 identified were included in the review. The authors concluded that the use of motorcycle helmets 1) decreases the overall death rate from motorcycle crashes when compared with nonhelmeted riders. 2) decreases the incidence of lethal head injury in motorcycle crashes
- [2013 - "Use of Motorcycle Helmets: Effectiveness Evidence Summary Table"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-use-of-motorcycle-helmets-effectiveness-evidence-summary-table/) - This is a table listing the research reports reviewed by the Community Guide Task Force. Following completion of the review of the available literature, the task force recommended universal motorcycle helmet laws based on strong evidence of helmet effectiveness.
- [2015 - "Estimating Lives and Costs Saved by Motorcycle Helmets With Updated Economic Cost Information"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-estimating-lives-and-costs-saved-by-motorcycle-helmets-with-updated-economic-cost-information-2/) - This is the 2015 NHTSA annual report (2013 data). In 2013, an estimated 1,630 lives were saved in the United States by motorcycle helmets; an estimated 715 additional fatalities could have been prevented if all motorcyclists1 had worn helmets.
- [2016 - "Motorcycle Helmet Effectiveness in Reducing Head, Face and Brain Injuries by State and Helmet Law"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-motorcycle-helmet-effectiveness-in-reducing-head-face-and-brain-injuries-by-state-and-helmet-law-2/) - Medical charges and rates of head, facial, and brain injuries among motorcyclists were lower in universal law states. Helmets were effective in reducing injury in both helmet law settings; lower effectiveness estimates were observed in universal law states.
- [1991 - "Motorcycle Helmet Laws Save Lives and Reduce Costs to Society"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/1991-motorcycle-helmet-laws-save-lives-and-reduce-costs-to-society/) - General Accounting Office report to Congress on the results of an evaluation of existing studies on motorcycle helmet laws and summary findings on (1) the effectiveness of helmets in preventing deaths and serious injuries, (2) the effect of helmet laws on helmet use and fatality rates, and (3) the costs that society incurs when motorcyclists
- [2002 - "Costs of Injuries Resulting from Motorcycle Crashes: A Literature Review"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2002-costs-of-injuries-resulting-from-motorcycle-crashes-a-literature-review/) - Abstract with web link. A review of 25 studies, selected from over 200 identified that examined the impact of safety helmets or helmet laws on motorcycle injuries and also studies that examined the question of who pays for medical costs. The studies (all identified in a chart) consistently found that helmet use reduced the fatality
- [2004 - "Non-Helmeted Motorcyclists: A Burden to Society? A Study Using the National Trauma Data Bank"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2004-non-helmeted-motorcyclists-a-burden-to-society-a-study-using-the-national-trauma-data-bank/) - Abstract. Helmet use was associated with lower injury severity, mortality, and resource utilization. Non-helmeted motorcyclists accrued greater hospital charges and were significantly less likely to have health insurance. When controlling for alcohol or drug use, mortality continued to be significantly associated with non-helmet use.
- [2006 - "Economic Impact of Motorcycle Helmets: From Impact to Discharge"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2006-economic-impact-of-motorcycle-helmets-from-impact-to-discharge/) - Abstract. The differential healthcare economic burden between unhelmeted and helmeted motorcyclists is approximately $250,231,734 per year and underscores the need for improved legislation to improve motorcycle helmet utilization.
- [2007 - "Exploring the Economics of Motorcycle Helmet Laws: Implications for Low and Middle-income Countries"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2007-exploring-the-economics-of-motorcycle-helmet-laws-implications-for-low-and-middle-income-countries/) - Abstract. This paper reviews economic evaluations of motorcycle helmet interventions in preventing injuries. A comprehensive literature review focusing on the effectiveness of motorcycle helmet use, and on mandatory helmet laws and their enforcement was done.
- [2008 - "Motorcycle Helmet Laws: The Facts, What Can be Done to Jump-Start Helmet Use, and Ways to Cap the Damages"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2008-motorcycle-helmet-laws-the-facts-what-can-be-done-to-jump-start-helmet-use-and-ways-to-cap-the-damages/) - A well referenced review including Section VI - Non-helmeted Riders and the Costs to Society, beginning on page 21.
- [2009 - "Motorcycle Helmets and Rider Safety: A Legislative Crisis"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2009-motorcycle-helmets-and-rider-safety-a-legislative-crisis/) - Abstract. A review offered as an educational resource to encourage and facilitate health care worker participation in legislative efforts to support implementation and maintenance of universal motorcycle helmet laws because of the finding that universal helmet laws lower the health care costs and associated societal burdens of these crash victims.
- [2011 - "Determining Estimates of Lives and Costs Saved by Motorcycle Helmets"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-determining-estimates-of-lives-and-costs-saved-by-motorcycle-helmets/) - This is the 2011 NHTSA annual report (2008 data).
- [2012 - "Helmet Use Among Motorcyclists Who Died in Crashes and Economic Cost Savings Associated With State Motorcycle Helmet Laws - United States, 2008–2010"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-helmet-use-among-motorcyclists-who-died-in-crashes-and-economic-cost-savings-associated-with-state-motorcycle-helmet-laws-united-states-2008-2010/) - In 2010, economic costs saved from helmet use by society in states with a universal helmet law were, on average, $725 per registered motorcycle, nearly four times greater than in states without such a law ($198).
- [2012 - "The Safety and Economic Costs of Repealing Michigan’s Helmet Law"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-the-safety-and-economic-costs-of-repealing-michigans-helmet-law/) - Based on analyses conducted by the University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) using actual 2009 motorcycle crash and cost data for the state the projected costs if the helmet law had been repealed in 2009: (1) An increase in total monetary costs from $351 million to $497.1 million (2) An increase in total non-monetary
- [2012 - "Costs Associated with Helmet Use in Motorcycle Crashes: The Cost of Not Wearing a Helmet"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-costs-associated-with-helmet-use-in-motorcycle-crashes-the-cost-of-not-wearing-a-helmet/) - Abstract. This retrospective study was designed to delineate the health care and insurance costs of adult trauma patients admitted to a Level 1 trauma center due to a motorcycle crash (MCC). The results demonstrate that medical costs due to an MCC for an unhelmeted motorcyclist were significantly higher than for a helmeted motorcyclist.
- [2012 - "Motorcycle Safety: How to Save Lives and Save Money"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-motorcycle-safety-how-to-save-lives-and-save-money-2/) - This is a publication by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. This is an excellent resource for distribution or use in presentations. Contains a table of economic costs saved by helmet use per registered motorcycle by state, 2010.
- [2013 - "Use of Motorcycle Helmets: Universal Helmet Laws - Summary Evidence Table - Economic Evidence"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-use-of-motorcycle-helmets-universal-helmet-laws-summary-evidence-table-economic-evidence/) - This is a supporting document of an extensive review of the literature completed in 2013 by the Community Guide Branch of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). More than 20 research studies which investigated the economic impact of helmet use/nonuse are summarized. The full report can be accessed at: https://www.thecommunityguide.org/findings/motor-vehicle-injury-motorcycle-helmets-universal-helmet-laws
- [2014 - "Estimating Cost Effectiveness of Wearing Motorcycle Helmets"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2014-estimating-cost-effectiveness-of-wearing-motorcycle-helmets/) - Presentation by a Ph.D. student in Public Policy (Economics) University of North Carolina at Charlotte. This study shows the economic advantage of wearing a motorcycle helmet. The expected monetary savings increase as the severity of injury increases.
- [2015 - "Estimating Lives and Costs Saved by Motorcycle Helmets With Updated Economic Cost Information"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-estimating-lives-and-costs-saved-by-motorcycle-helmets-with-updated-economic-cost-information/) - This is the 2015 NHTSA annual report (2013 data). The lives saved resulted in an estimated $2.8 billion saved in economic costs, and $17.3 billion in comprehensive costs by helmet-wearing motorcyclists. An additional $1.1 billion could have been saved in economic costs, and $7.2 billion in comprehensive costs, if all motorcyclists had worn helmets.
- [2015 - "Motorcycle Helmets: The Economic Burden of an Incomplete Helmet Law to Medical Care in the State of Connecticut"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-motorcycle-helmets-the-economic-burden-of-an-incomplete-helmet-law-to-medical-care-in-the-state-of-connecticut/) - Abstract. The study presents a financial model to estimate how the lack of a mandatory helmet law impacts the cost of health care in the state of Connecticut. This model demonstrates that the lack of a mandatory helmet law increases overall health care costs to the state of Connecticut.
- [2015 - "National Mandatory Motorcycle Helmet Laws May Save $2.2 Billion Annually: An Inpatient and Value of Statistical Life Analysis"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-national-mandatory-motorcycle-helmet-laws-may-save-2-2-billion-annually-an-inpatient-and-value-of-statistical-life-analysis/) - Abstract. A cost analysis of inpatient care and indirect costs of motorcycle riders who do not wear helmets leads to nearly $2.2 billion in losses per year, with almost 1.9 times as many deaths compared with helmeted motorcyclists. The per capita cost per fatality is more than $800,000. Institution of a mandatory helmet law could
- [2015 - "The Economic Impact of Helmet Use on Motorcycle Accidents: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of the Literature from the Past 20 Years"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-the-economic-impact-of-helmet-use-on-motorcycle-accidents-a-systematic-review-and-meta-analysis-of-the-literature-from-the-past-20-years/) - An abstract of a literature review the purpose of which was to clarify the economic impact of motorcycle helmet use. The review only included articles that were primary studies, written in English, evaluations of periods after 1994, and published in a peer-reviewed journal. Meta-analysis demonstrated that nonhelmeted patients required $12,239 more in hospital costs per
- [2015 - "Impact of North Carolina’s Motorcycle Helmet Law on Hospital Admissions and Charges for Care of Traumatic Brain Injuries"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-impact-of-north-carolinas-motorcycle-helmet-law-on-hospital-admissions-and-charges-for-care-of-traumatic-brain-injuries/) - The purpose of this article is to estimate the impact of the state law in terms of hospital admissions for traumatic brain injury (TBI) and associated hospital charges. Averted hospital charges to taxpayer-funded sources were estimated to be between $9.5 million and $11.6 million for 2011, and total averted hospital charges for 2011 were estimated
- [2016 - "Lives and Costs Saved by Motorcycle Helmets, 2014"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-lives-and-costs-saved-by-motorcycle-helmets-2014/) - The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration annually (this is the 2016 edition, 2014 data) provides information on the number of lives saved by the use of DOT-compliant motorcycle helmets, as well as the potential number of lives that could have been saved at 100-percent helmet use. The report states nearly $3 billion in economic costs
- [2016 - "Federally Mandating Motorcycle Helmets in the United States"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-federally-mandating-motorcycle-helmets-in-the-united-states/) - Motorcycle crashes are a major public health concern which place economic stress on the U.S. healthcare system. Injured, non-helmeted motorcyclists require substantially more healthcare resources than helmeted motorcyclists: the differential healthcare costs between non-helmeted and helmeted motorcyclist injuries account for an additional $290 million. Helmet use on motorcycles fits squarely within the purview of the
- [1943 - "Head Injuries in Motor-Cyclists with Special Reference to Crash Helmets"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/1943-head-injuries-in-motor-cyclists-with-special-reference-to-crash-helmets/) - The early research by Hugh Cairns. His conclusion - the crash helmet is effective in diminishing local damage to the brain and its coverings at the site of impact, and it tends to lower the incidence of cases of prolonged amnesia.
- [1988 - "Patterns of Injury in Helmeted and Non-Helmeted Motorcyclists"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/1988-patterns-of-injury-in-helmeted-and-non-helmeted-motorcyclists/) - In this study, the incidence of severe brain injury was 600 percent higher for patients riding without a helmet and the incidence of all brain injuries was nearly twice as high in the nonhelmeted riders.
- [1994 - "Head Injuries in Traffic Accidents with Emphasis on the Comparisons between Motorcycle Helmet Users and Non-Users"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/1994-head-injuries-in-traffic-accidents-with-emphasis-on-the-comparisons-between-motorcycle-helmet-users-and-non-users/) - The objective of this study was to analyze the characteristics of head injuries caused by motor vehicle accidents in terms of the injured person's demographic characteristics, time and types of crash, injury severity on the abbreviated injury scale (AIS), medical cost and benefits of helmet protection. The results showed that the most common cause of
- [1999 - "Motorcyclists Head Injuries:  Mechanisms Identified from Accident Reconstruction and Helmet Damage Replication"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/1999-motorcyclists-head-injuries-mechanisms-identified-from-accident-reconstruction-and-helmet-damage-replication/) - This is an earlier presentation of the research published in 2001, Head Injury Mechanisms in Helmet-Protected Motorcyclists: Prospective Multicenter Study. The researchers found notable correlation between helmet damage location and head injury region but also some possible exceptions. Both are important in understanding how head injuries occur, how helmet design may affect injuries and, in
- [2001 - "Head Injury Mechanisms in Helmet-Protected Motorcyclists: Prospective Multicenter Study"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2001-head-injury-mechanisms-in-helmet-protected-motorcyclists-prospective-multicenter-study/) - The aim of this study was to analyze the current situation of a protection standard in helmet construction in Europe and to evaluate the mechanism of head and brain injuries in helmet-protected motorcyclists to create a basis for further development of helmets. The results of this research expand on earlier reports showing that helmets provide
- [2002 - "Injury Patterns Associated with Mortality Following Motorcycle Crashes"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2002-injury-patterns-associated-with-mortality-following-motorcycle-crashes-2/) - All patients involved in motorcycle crashes admitted to various hospitals in the Yorkshire region of UK between January 1993 and December 1999 were retrospectively reviewed to identify the factors that are likely to predict a reduced survival. There was a significant difference in the Glasgow coma scale (GCS) between patients wearing a helmet and those
- [2007 - "Health and Cost Outcomes Resulting from Traumatic Brain Injury Caused by Not Wearing a Helmet, for Motorcycle Crashes in Wisconsin, 2003-2005"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2007-health-and-cost-outcomes-resulting-from-traumatic-brain-injury-caused-by-not-wearing-a-helmet-for-motorcycle-crashes-in-wisconsin-2003-2005/) - This is the first in a series of evaluations by this researcher (see 2013 and 2015). Those not wearing a helmet were almost two and a half times as likely to suffer TBI as those wearing a helmet.
- [2008 - "Changes in Motorcycle-Related Head Injury Deaths, Hospitalizations, and Hospital Charges Following Repeal of Pennsylvania’s Mandatory Motorcycle Helmet Law"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2008-changes-in-motorcycle-related-head-injury-deaths-hospitalizations-and-hospital-charges-following-repeal-of-pennsylvanias-mandatory-motorcycle-helmet-law/) - This research provides information regarding the connection between helmet use and head injury as well as the impact of repealing all-rider helmet laws. To evaluate the 2003 repeal of Pennsylvania’s motorcycle helmet law, the researchers assessed changes in helmet use and compared motorcycle related head injuries with nonhead injuries from 2001–2002 to 2004–2005. Helmet use
- [2009 - "Motorcycle Helmet Use and Head and Facial Injuries"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2009-motorcycle-helmet-use-and-head-and-facial-injuries/) - This report examines the relationship between motorcycle helmet use and motorcycle crash outcomes in terms of injury types, hospital charges, and other variables employing data from the Crash Outcome Data Evaluation System (CODES). Helmeted motorcyclists were less likely to experience facial and head injuries compared to unhelmeted motorcyclists. Helmeted motorcyclists were significantly less likely to
- [2010 - "Youth Motorcycle-Related Brain Injury by State Helmet Law Type: United States, 2005-2007"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2010-youth-motorcycle-related-brain-injury-by-state-helmet-law-type-united-states-2005-2007/) - This research is important not only for what it tell us about helmet use and TBI but also about the ineffectiveness of partial use helmet laws. States with youth-specific laws had an increased risk of TBI that required hospitalization, serious and severe TBI, TBI-related disability, and in-hospital death among the youth they are supposed to
- [2010 - "An Evidence-Based Review: Helmet Efficacy to Reduce Head Injury and Mortality in Motorcycle Crashes: EAST Practice Management Guidelines"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2010-an-evidence-based-review-helmet-efficacy-to-reduce-head-injury-and-mortality-in-motorcycle-crashes-east-practice-management-guidelines/) - This is one of three high quality literature reviews highlighted in the Sept. /Oct 2014 Special Edition of Riding Smart. Literature reviews like this one are an excellent way to begin study of any research topic. The authors concluded that the use of motorcycle helmets 1) decreases the overall death rate from motorcycle crashes when
- [2011 - "Improving TBI Protection Measures and Standards for Combat Helmets"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-improving-tbi-protection-measures-and-standards-for-combat-helmets/) - How well do current combat helmets protect against Traumatic Brain Injury? According to the authors, to answer this question it is necessary to evaluate both the measures and standards of protection. The authors define measure as a physical test that the helmet must be subject to and the standard as the quantitative threshold of performance
- [2011 - "Effectiveness of Different Types of Motorcycle Helmets and Effects of Their Improper Use on Head Injuries"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-effectiveness-of-different-types-of-motorcycle-helmets-and-effects-of-their-improper-use-on-head-injuries/) - This case–control study was conducted to examine how different types and improper helmet use affected protection against head injuries helmet. Analysis showed that compared with helmeted motorcyclists, non-helmeted motorcyclists were more than four times as likely to have head injuries and ten times as likely to have brain injuries. Compared with motorcyclists wearing full-face helmets,
- [2013 - "Patterns of Head Injuries in Road Traffic Accidents Involving Two wheelers: An Autopsy Study"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-patterns-of-head-injuries-in-road-traffic-accidents-involving-two-wheelers-an-autopsy-study/) - This study was conducted to identify the patterns of head injuries in fatal accidents involving riders and passengers of two wheelers. A fracture of the skull with associated brain injury was found to be the most common cause of death in this study.
- [2013 - "Head Injury and Effective Motorcycle Helmets"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-head-injury-and-effective-motorcycle-helmets/) - The crash characteristics and injuries to the head sustained by helmeted motorcyclists were examined by reference to data from motorcycle crash studies. The crash data regarding the head injury sustained in helmeted head impacts in motorcycle crashes suggests areas available to improve current motorcycle helmet effectiveness and motorcycle helmet standard test methodologies in reducing brain
- [2013 - "Impact of Helmet Use in Traumatic Brain Injuries Associated with Recreational Vehicles"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-impact-of-helmet-use-in-traumatic-brain-injuries-associated-with-recreational-vehicles/) - The objective of this study was to access the impact of helmet use on outcomes after recreational vehicle accidents including motorcycles. Lack of helmet use was significantly associated with having a more severe traumatic brain injury, greater likelihood being admitted to the hospital, significantly greater length of hospital stay.
- [2013 - "Motorcycle Helmets - A State of the Art Review"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-motorcycle-helmets-a-state-of-the-art-review/) - This is an extensively referenced must read report for anyone wanting to better understand the development of motorcycle helmets, helmet standards and the concepts related to head impact protection and energy absorption. The report includes a literature review of current and most commonly used helmet test standards, along with new tests and helmet concepts to
- [2013 - "Health and Cost Outcomes Resulting from Traumatic Brain Injury Caused by Not Wearing a Helmet, for Motorcycle Crashes in Wisconsin, 2011"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-health-and-cost-outcomes-resulting-from-traumatic-brain-injury-caused-by-not-wearing-a-helmet-for-motorcycle-crashes-in-wisconsin-2011/) - This is the second in a series of evaluations by the author. See description from the 2015 report. The main protective effect provided by wearing a helmet was in reducing the number of crash victims who had traumatic brain injury. Estimated costs were much higher for TBI crash victims than non-TBI victims. Altogether, not wearing
- [2015 - "Motorcycle-Related Traumatic Brain Injuries: Helmet Use and Treatment Outcome"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-motorcycle-related-traumatic-brain-injuries-helmet-use-and-treatment-outcome/) - The objectives were to determine the treatment outcome among traumatic brain injury patients from motorcycle crashes and the rate of helmet use among them. This study was in Nigeria and showed that the helmet use by motorcycle riders was close to zero despite the existing laws making use compulsory.
- [2015 - "Health and Cost Outcomes Resulting from Traumatic Brain Injury Caused by Not Wearing a Helmet, for Motorcycle Crashes in Wisconsin, 2013"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-health-and-cost-outcomes-resulting-from-traumatic-brain-injury-caused-by-not-wearing-a-helmet-for-motorcycle-crashes-in-wisconsin-2013/) - This is the third published evaluation by the author with the Center for Health Systems Research and Analysis University of Wisconsin (previous publication in 2007 and 2013) of the impact of a variety of motorcycle crash related factors on the likelihood of having a traumatic brain injury (TBI). Helmet use was found to have a
- [2016 - "The Preventive Effect of Head Injury by Helmet Type in Motorcycle Crashes: A Rural Korean Single-Center Observational Study"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-the-preventive-effect-of-head-injury-by-helmet-type-in-motorcycle-crashes-a-rural-korean-single-center-observational-study/) - The goal of this study was to determine the preventive effect on head injury by helmet type: full face helmet (FFH), open face helmet (OFH), and half-coverage helmet (HCH). The findings from this study suggest that FFHs and OFHs reduce the risk of head injury, and FFHs have a protective effect against minor and severe
- [2016 - "Motorcycle Helmet Effectiveness in Reducing Head, Face and Brain Injuries by State and Helmet Law"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-motorcycle-helmet-effectiveness-in-reducing-head-face-and-brain-injuries-by-state-and-helmet-law/) - Medical outcomes were compared between partial and universal helmet law settings. Medical charges and rates of head, facial, and brain injuries among motorcyclists were lower in universal law states.
- [1992 - "Motorcycle Safety Literature Review 1987 – 1991"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/1992-motorcycle-safety-literature-review-1987-1991/) - This Australian report presents the findings and recommendation of a world-wide review of the literature in motorcyclist safety research, covering the period 1987 to 1991. The literature examined was divided into a number of categories which included the following: alcohol, licensing, rider training, motorcycle design features, road environment, public education and awareness and helmet design.
- [2008 - "A Guide for Addressing Collisions Involving Motorcycles, NCHRP Report 500, Vol 22"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2008-a-guide-for-addressing-collisions-involving-motorcycles-nchrp-report-500-volume-22/) - National Cooperative Highway Research Program. This is a 177 page guide plus extensive references which identifies eight motorcyclist safety objectives, strategies associated with each objective and summaries of research relevant to each strategy, provides estimates of implementation timeframe, cost and expected effectiveness and identifies each strategy as proven, tried or experimental.
- [2006 - "Rider Training and Collision Avoidance in Thailand & Los Angeles Motorcycle Crashes"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2006-rider-training-and-collision-avoidance-in-thailand-los-angeles-motorcycle-crashes/) - Both the Thailand and Hurt studies concur that the time from the precipitating event that begins the collision sequence to the impact itself is so short – less than three seconds in the great majority of cases – that even a well-chosen, well-executed evasive action is unlikely to be effective. This suggests that rider training
- [2007 - "Effectiveness of Motorcycle Training and Motorcyclists’ Risk-Taking Behavior"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2007-effectiveness-of-motorcycle-training-and-motorcyclists-risk-taking-behavior/) - In this study a 2005 sample of Indiana motorcyclists was used to estimate statistical models of the effectiveness of existing training programs in reducing accident probabilities. The findings showed that those individuals who took beginning rider training courses were more likely to be involved in an accident than those who did not and that those
- [2009 - "Effectiveness of Motorcycle Training and Licensing" ](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2009-effectiveness-of-motorcycle-training-and-licensing/) - This literature review looked at the effectiveness of motorcycle education courses by examining the effect that training had on accident rates, violation rates, and personal protective equipment use found through past research. The methods, findings, and conclusions of seven independent studies were compared to evaluate the effectiveness of motorcycle training. One common assumption is that trained
- [2010 - "Motorcycle Rider Training for Preventing Road Traffic Crashes"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2010-motorcycle-rider-training-for-preventing-road-traffic-crashes/) - A review by the Cochran collaboration of 23 research studies that report an evaluation of the effectiveness of motorcycle rider courses in reducing the number of traffic offences, motorcycle rider crashes, injuries and deaths. Due to the poor quality of studies identified, the researchers were unable to draw any conclusions about the effectiveness of rider training on crash,
- [2013 - "The Effect of Sight Distance Training on the Visual Scanning of Motorcycle Riders: A Preliminary Look"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-the-effect-of-sight-distance-training-on-the-visual-scanning-of-motorcycle-riders-a-preliminary-look/) - This is not the typical type of operational skills training. Very little is known about the effect of motorcycle rider training on visual scanning and sight distance techniques in naturalistic riding situations. This study collected naturalistic data from a mix of novice and experienced motorcycle riders on a closed course and an open course. Findings
- [2015 - "Does an On-road Motorcycle Coaching Program Reduce Crashes in Novice Riders? A Randomized Control Trial"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-does-an-on-road-motorcycle-coaching-program-reduce-crashes-in-novice-riders-a-randomized-control-trial/) - This study aimed to determine the effectiveness of a program called “VicRide” in reducing crash involvement for novice motorcycle riders in Victoria. There was no evidence that this on-road motorcycle rider coaching program reduced the risk of crash, and researchers found an increase in crash-related risk factors for trained riders.
- [2006 - "Effect of Prior Blackspot Programs on Motorcycle Safety"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2006-effect-of-prior-blackspot-programs-on-motorcycle-safety/) - The Victoria, Australia blackspot program was effective in reducing casualty motorcycle crashes at treated sites by a statistically significant 31%, which was also the estimated reduction for casualty crashes involving all types of vehicles.
- [2006 - "IHIE Guidelines for Motorcycling - Improving Safety Through Engineering and Integration"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2006-ihie-guidelines-for-motorcycling-improving-safety-through-engineering-and-integration/) - Paper presented at the 2006 International Motorcycle Safety Conference by Anthony Sharp, IEng, FIHIE, MIHT, Vice President, Institute of Highway Incorporated Engineers. The Guidelines (not research), which were a first in the UK, aim to assist highway and traffic engineers in developing a safer and more motorcycle friendly road environment.
- [2008 - "Effects of Center-Line Rumble Strips on Non-Conventional Vehicles"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2008-effects-of-center-line-rumble-strips-on-non-conventional-vehicles/) - No Minnesota crash reports investigated in this study implicated the rumble strips as a factor in the accident. There were also no visible indications of rider correction or overcorrection in 40 hours of roadside observations.
- [2012 - "Infrastructure Countermeasures to Mitigate Motorcyclist Crashes in Europe"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-infrastructure-countermeasures-to-mitigate-motorcyclist-crashes-in-europe/) - The Federal Highway Administration, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, and National Cooperative Highway Research Program sponsored a scanning study of five European countries to evaluate infrastructure improvements to aid motorcyclists.
- [2014 - "Motorcycle Crashes into Roadside Barriers: Stage 4, Protecting Motorcyclists in Collisions with Roadside Barriers"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2014-motorcycle-crashes-into-roadside-barriers-stage-4-protecting-motorcyclists-in-collisions-with-roadside-barriers/) - Previous studies (Stages 1 to 3) have established an understanding of the nature of motorcyclist-barrier collisions. The focus of this present Stage 4 study is twofold. Firstly, to provide an understanding of how motorcyclists can be better protected in collisions with W-beam barriers and what the limitations are when concrete barriers are used. Secondly, to
- [2005 - "Motorcycle Impacts into Roadside Barriers: Real-World Accident Studies, Crash Tests and Simulations Carried Out in Germany and Australia"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2005-motorcycle-impacts-into-roadside-barriers-real-world-accident-studies-crash-tests-and-simulations-carried-out-in-germany-and-australia/) - A paper that describes relevant, real-world accident scenarios, the different roadside protection systems used for the tests, the crash tests, the modeling simulations and the results, and proposed improvements to barrier systems to reduce injury severity
- [2007 - "Roadside Barrier and Passive Safety of Motorcyclists Along Exclusive Motorcycle Lanes"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2007-roadside-barrier-and-passive-safety-of-motorcyclists-along-exclusive-motorcycle-lanes/) - In order to investigate the passive safety of motorcyclists while in collision with w-beam guardrail, this study carried out computer simulation of typical crash scenario and conducted a physical crash test to validate the simulation model.
- [2008 - "Barriers to Change: Designing Safe Roads for Motorcyclists"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2008-barriers-to-change-designing-safe-roads-for-motorcyclists/) - Position paper (not research) on motorcycles and crash barriers by the European Road Assessment Programme. When an obstacle-free roadside is not achievable and crash barriers are needed, the Panel believes that motorcyclists have the right to expect and demand safe vehicle restraint systems.
- [2010 - "The Effect of Barrier Type on Injury Severity in Motorcycle to Barrier Collisions in North Carolina, Texas, and New Jersey"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2010-the-effect-of-barrier-type-on-injury-severity-in-motorcycle-to-barrier-collisions-in-north-carolina-texas-and-new-jersey/) - This study presents an analysis of the injury risk in 951 motorcycle-barrier collisions, involving 1,000 riders, in North Carolina, Texas, and New Jersey. The barriers examined included W-beam guardrail, cable barrier, and concrete barrier.
- [2014 - "Study of High-Tension Cable Barriers on Michigan Roadways"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2014-study-of-high-tension-cable-barriers-on-michigan-roadways/) - Final report by Wayne State University. Overall, it appears that the installation of cable barriers on Michigan freeways has not had a significant effect on motorcyclist safety, however the sample sizes of motorcycle-involved target crashes on control segments were quite low and strong conclusions regarding the effect median treatment type on motorcycle-involved crash severity outcomes
- [2003 - "Motorcycle Protective Clothing"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2003-motorcycle-protective-clothing/) - A presentation by leading researchers which describes a comprehensive review of research into the safety value of motorcycle protective clothing.
- [2006 - "The Injury Reduction Benefits of Motorcycle Protective Clothing"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2006-the-injury-reduction-benefits-of-motorcycle-protective-clothing/) - A presentation at the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) Motorcycle Safety Forum which provides a background and overview.
- [2008 - "Development and Evaluation of a New Rider Airbag Safety System for Thorax Protection"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2008-development-and-evaluation-of-a-new-rider-airbag-safety-system-for-thorax-protection/) - This paper focuses on the use of the numerical simulation to predict rib fractures in case of motorcyclist accident and to evaluate a new safety system: an airbag integrated in a jacket. Different simulations, with and without airbag were performed to evaluate the influence of various parameters. The study showed that the airbag system increases
- [2012 - "Effectiveness of Motorcycle Protective Clothing: Riders’ Health Outcomes in the Six Months Following a Crash"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-effectiveness-of-motorcycle-protective-clothing-riders-health-outcomes-in-the-six-months-following-a-crash/) - Abstract. Apart from helmets, little is known about the effectiveness of motorcycle protective clothing in reducing injuries in crashes. The study aimed to quantify the association between usage of motorcycle clothing and injury in crashes.
- [2013 - "Roles of Motorcycle Type and Protective Clothing in Motorcycle Crash Injuries"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-roles-of-motorcycle-type-and-protective-clothing-in-motorcycle-crash-injuries/) - The aims of this study were to identify subgroups of motorcyclists with a higher accident risk and evaluate the efficiency of protective clothing for preventing injuries.
- [2010 - "The Potential of Different Countermeasures in Reducing Motorcycle Fatal Crashes:  What In-Depth Studies Tell Us"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2010-the-potential-of-different-countermeasures-in-reducing-motorcycle-fatal-crashes-what-in-depth-studies-tell-us/) - This document is a 10 page summary of a 2010 study that used in-depth studies of 182 fatal motorcycle crashes that occurred in Sweden during the period 2005-2008. Every fatal crash was analyzed and critical events throughout the chain of events leading to the crash were identified. An assessment was then made of whether certain
- [2012 - "Motorcycle Safety: How to Save Lives and Save Money"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-motorcycle-safety-how-to-save-lives-and-save-money/) - National Center for Injury Prevention and Control Division of Unintentional Injury Prevention. This document provides a chart (page 10) rating nine typical motorcyclist safety efforts as unknown, uncertain, likely, and scientifically proven.
- [2013 - "Effective Targeting of Motorcycle Safety Countermeasures in New Zealand"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-effective-targeting-of-motorcycle-safety-countermeasures-in-new-zealand/) - The specific aims of this 93 page report were to summarize current knowledge on the effectiveness of the full range of motorcyclist safety countermeasures and to estimate the potential crash reduction and injury benefits that could be expected from applying identified effective motorcyclist safety countermeasures.
- [2015 - "Countermeasures That Work: A Highway Safety Countermeasure Guide for State Highway Safety Offices, Eighth Edition, 2015, Chapter 5, Motorcycles"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-countermeasures-that-work-a-highway-safety-countermeasure-guide-for-state-highway-safety-offices-eighth-edition-2015-chapter-5-motorcycles/) - National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Chapter 5 is 33 pages including references that provide easy to read summaries of the research related to nine strategies in four categories. A strategy is rated on effectiveness, cost, use and time to implement.
- [2001 - "Trends in the Motorcycle Crash Problem"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2001-trends-in-the-motorcycle-crash-problem/) - This paper considers the implications of the findings for countermeasure development, especially for rider licensing and rider education and training programs. The author concludes “influencing rider attitudes and behavior is likely the most promising means for achieving long-term cost-effective crash reductions. Certainly, the findings show there is a pressing need to address the high-risk rider, who
- [2005 - "Promising Practices in Motorcycle Rider Education and Licensing"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2005-promising-practices-in-motorcycle-rider-education-and-licensing/) - The purpose of this 64 page report is to develop a model of promising practices (including licensing) based on the limited available research and position papers published by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.
- [2005 - "Motorcycle Rider Education and Licensing: A Review of Programs and Practices"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2005-motorcycle-rider-education-and-licensing-a-review-of-programs-and-practices/) - This is a 243 page report presenting data on practices, including licensing, as collected in 2001.
- [2009 - "Guidelines for Motorcycle Operator Licensing"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2009-guidelines-for-motorcycle-operator-licensing/) - This guideline document contains information on standard motorcycle operator licensing systems; motorcycle safety initiatives and strategies to increase proper licensure among motorcyclists within a jurisdiction; a model Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) system for new-entrant riders; and motorcycle rider education waiver programs and third party testing.
- [2012 - "Motorcycle Lane Share Study Among California Motorcyclists and Drivers 2012"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-motorcycle-lane-share-study-among-california-motorcyclists-and-drivers-2012/) - This is the initial survey conducted on behalf of The California Office of Traffic Safety. The objective of the survey was a statewide statistically representative of California drivers and California motorcyclists regarding their behavior and opinions on motorcycle lane sharing on freeways and other multiple lane roadways.
- [2013 - "Lane Splitting on California Freeways"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-lane-splitting-on-california-freeways/) - The author of this report is James Ouellet, one of the original “Hurt Study” researchers. The study examines contemporary data collected by monitoring freeway video cameras and simultaneous speed data at the camera location. It also examines 1976-77 data from the “Hurt Study.” It compares the frequency of lane splitting motorcycles observed in moderate or
- [2013 - "Motorcycle Lane-Share Study Among California Motorcyclists and Drivers 2013 and Comparison to 2012 Data"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-motorcycle-lane-share-study-among-california-motorcyclists-and-drivers-2013-and-comparison-to-2012-data/) - This is the second wave of an intercept study initiated in 2012 and designed to collect information for a statewide statistically representative study of California drivers and California motorcyclists regarding their behavior and opinions on motorcycle lane-sharing on freeways and other multiple-lane roadways.
- [2014 - "Motorcycle Lane-Share Study Among California Motorcyclists and Drivers 2014 and Comparison to 2012 and 2013 Data"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2014-motorcycle-lane-share-study-among-california-motorcyclists-and-drivers-2014-and-comparison-to-2012-and-2013-data/) - This is the third survey initiated in 2012 and is designed to collect longitudinal information in a statewide statistically representative study of California motorcyclists and California drivers regarding their behavior and opinions on motorcycle lane-sharing on freeways and other multiple-lane roadways. Specifically, the anonymous survey collected data on opinions on motorcycle lane-sharing, its perceived legality
- [2014 - "Safety Implications of Lane-splitting Among California Motorcyclists Involved in Collisions"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2014-safety-implications-of-lane-splitting-among-california-motorcyclists-involved-in-collisions/) - This document summarizes an analysis of preliminary data from the California Enhanced Motorcycle Collision Data Project. This preliminary analysis found that Lane-splitting Motorcyclists (LSM) who were involved in traffic collisions and who were included in the Enhanced Motorcycle Collision Data Project had significantly different characteristics than other motorcyclists. LSM were better helmeted than other motorcyclists.
- [2002 - "Injury Patterns Associated with Mortality Following Motorcycle Crashes"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2002-injury-patterns-associated-with-mortality-following-motorcycle-crashes/) - Abstract. Of the 1239 patients requiring hospital admission, 74 died. The probability of reduced survival was estimated by a logistic regression model using independent variables such as head injury, thoracic trauma, abdominal injury, spinal injury and pelvic fracture and a compound variable of pelvic fracture combined with a long bone fracture.
- [2006 - "Injury Patterns and Severity Among Hospitalized Motorcyclists: A Comparison of Younger and Older Riders"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2006-injury-patterns-and-severity-among-hospitalized-motorcyclists-a-comparison-of-younger-and-older-riders/) - The purpose of this analysis was to determine differences, if any, in injury patterns to older vs. younger motorcyclists and to explore rider, vehicle, and environmental factors associated with these differences.
- [2008 - "An Analysis of Hospitalized Motorcyclists in the State of Maryland Based on Helmet Use and Outcome"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2008-an-analysis-of-hospitalized-motorcyclists-in-the-state-of-maryland-based-on-helmet-use-and-outcome/) - Data on injured motorcyclists is captured from the trauma registry, hospital discharge records, autopsy reports, and through a linkage with police crash reports. Injured parties are assessed six-months and one-year post crash. By analyzing riders who were injured, this project has shown that the likelihood of sustaining a brain injury increases when wearing a non-compliant
- [2009 - "Crash Characteristics and Patterns of Injury Among Hospitalized Motorised Two-wheeled Vehicle Users in Urban India"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2009-crash-characteristics-and-patterns-of-injury-among-hospitalized-motorised-two-wheeled-vehicle-users-in-urban-india/) - This is a report on the crash characteristics and injury patterns among a cohort of MTV riders and pillions presenting to hospital post-crash.
- [2012 - "Injury Pattern, Injury Severity, and Mortality in 33,495 Hospital-admitted Victims of Motorized Two-wheeled Vehicle Crashes in The Netherlands"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-injury-pattern-injury-severity-and-mortality-in-33495-hospital-admitted-victims-of-motorized-two-wheeled-vehicle-crashes-in-the-netherlands/) - Data from the Institute for Road Safety Research and the Hospital Trauma Databases were analyzed. Injury Severity Score and Abbreviated Injury Scale to calculate the relative risks of severe trauma and mortality.
- [2013 - "Injury Severity and Causation Factors of Motorcyclists in Traffic Accidents in comparing Drivers of Motorcycle and All Kinds of Motorized Two-Wheelers"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-injury-severity-and-causation-factors-of-motorcyclists-in-traffic-accidents-in-comparing-drivers-of-motorcycle-and-all-kinds-of-motorized-two-wheelers/) - This study describes the injury frequency and injuries in detail for motorcycle drivers on German roads involved in crashes including the influence of helmets on injury severity. The study is based on documented accidents by the German In-Depth Accident Study (GIDAS). GIDAS data gathering initiated in 1999.
- [2013 - "What Body Parts Will You Most Likely Injure in a Motorcycle Crash?"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-what-body-parts-will-you-most-likely-injure-in-a-motorcycle-crash/) - Not a research article but a well-written overview of the major research on the topic. Published in RideApart.
- [1981 - "The Hurt Report"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/1981-the-hurt-report/) - The report is known by the last name its primary author, Professor Harry Hurt. The full title of the report is Motorcycle Accident Cause Factors and Identification of Countermeasures, Volume 1: Technical Report. The findings significantly advanced the state of knowledge of the causes of motorcycle accidents, in particular pointing out the widespread problem of car drivers
- [2001 - "Motorcycle Accident Causation and Identification of Countermeasures in Thailand. Volume II: Upcountry"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2001-motorcycle-accident-causation-and-identification-of-countermeasures-in-thailand-volume-ii-upcountry/) - A total of 359 on-scene, in-depth accident-involved motorcycles were investigated in five provincial sampling regions.
- [2001 - "Thailand - Bangkok Summary of Findings"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2001-thailand-bangkok-summary-of-findings/) - Forty-eight significant findings.
- [2001 - "Motorcycle Accident Causation and Identification of Countermeasures in Thailand. Volume I: Bangkok Study"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2001-motorcycle-accident-causation-and-identification-of-countermeasures-in-thailand-volume-i-bangkok-study/) - A total of 723 on-scene, in-depth accident-involved motorcycles were investigated in Bangkok.
- [2004 - "MAIDS: Summary of Findings"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2004-maids-summary-of-findings/) - Twenty-six significant findings.
- [2004 - "In-Depth Study of Motorcycle Accidents"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2004-in-depth-study-of-motorcycle-accidents/) - U.K. Department of Transport. A sample of 1,790 accident cases was considered, including 1,003 in detail, from Midland police forces, involving motorcyclists of all ages, and covering the years 1997 – 2002 inclusive.
- [2007 - "Comparative Analysis of Motorcycle Accident Data from OTS and MAIDS"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2007-comparative-analysis-of-motorcycle-accident-data-from-ots-and-maids/) - A study to compare the findings of the European Motorcycle Accident In-Depth Study (MAIDS) with data from the UK On The Spot (OTS) study, which collected all road accident "on-the-spot" data from France, Spain, Germany, Italy, and The Netherlands.
- [2010 - "Motorcycle Crash Causes and Outcomes: Pilot Study"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2010-motorcycle-crash-causes-and-outcomes-pilot-study/) - A NHTSA comprehensive, in-depth Motorcycle Crash Causation Study (MCCS) designed to provide a better understanding of motorcycle crashes in order to develop more appropriate countermeasures. When completed, a large and unique data set will be developed that is derived from both actual motorcycle crashes and riders with similar risk characteristics and will focus on the
- [2016 - "Factors that Increase and Decrease Motorcyclist Crash Risk"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2016-factors-that-increase-and-decrease-motorcyclist-crash-risk/) - This paper reports on a naturalistic study which was deployed by the Motorcycle Safety Foundation (MSF) to investigate safe riding and crashes in natural riding. Over 366,000 miles of riding were collected by 100 participants on their personal motorcycles. This paper identifies twelve (12) factors that increased risk and five (5) factors decreased risk for
- [2012 - "Motorcycle Conspicuity:  What Factors have the Most Impact?"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-motorcycle-conspicuity-what-factors-have-the-most-impact/) - The objective of this project was to determine the effect of headlight configuration (daytime running lights, high beam, modulating) and rider color (bright yellow, blue denim, and black torso and helmet) on the conspicuity of a motorcycle to a driver of a passenger vehicle in a simulated environment.
- [1981 - "The Effect of Improvements in Motorcycle/Motorcyclist Conspicuity on Driver Behavior, Abstract"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/1981-the-effect-of-improvements-in-motorcyclemotorcyclist-conspicuity-on-driver-behavior-abstract/) - A study conducted to develop and evaluate various means of making motorcycles more conspicuous.
- [1996 - "Some Factors Affecting Motorcyclists’ Conspicuity"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/1996-some-factors-affecting-motorcyclists-conspicuity/) - Three experiments examined some of the factors that might affect motorcyclists' conspicuity to other road users.
- [2004 - "Motorcycle Rider Conspicuity and Crash Related Injury: Case-control Study"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2004-motorcycle-rider-conspicuity-and-crash-related-injury-case-control-study/) - A New Zealand study that found low conspicuity may increase the risk of motorcycle crash related injury. Concludes that increasing the use of reflective or fluorescent clothing, white or light colored helmets, and daytime headlights are simple, cheap interventions that could considerably reduce motorcycle crash related injury and death. Includes twenty-five references.
- [2005 - "Motorcyclist Conspicuity-related Accidents in Urban Areas: A Speed Problem?"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2005-motorcyclist-conspicuity-related-accidents-in-urban-areas-a-speed-problem/) - The low conspicuity of motorcycles often works in combination with the motorcyclist's high driving speed.
- [2007 - "The Role of Motorcyclist and Other Driver Behaviour in Two Types of Serious Accident in the UK;  Abstract"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2007-the-role-of-motorcyclist-and-other-driver-behaviour-in-two-types-of-serious-accident-in-the-uk-abstract/) - A sample of 1790 accident cases was considered covering years 1997-2002 inclusive. There seems to be a particular problem surrounding other road users' perception of motorcycles, particularly at junctions.
- [2011 - "Motorcycle Conspicuity and the Effect of Fleet DRL:  Analysis of Two-vehicle Fatal Crashes in Canada and the United States 2001-2007"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2007-motorcycle-conspicuity-and-the-effect-of-fleet-drl-analysis-of-two-vehicle-fatal-crashes-in-canada-and-the-united-states-2001/) - Is the effectiveness of motorcycle headlight use diminished when more vehicles have DRL (Daytime Running Lights)?
- [2010 - "Enhancing Motorcycle Conspicuity Awareness in Iowa"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2010-enhancing-motorcycle-conspicuity-awareness-in-iowa/) - A report based on and including the research study “Differences in Motorcycle Conspicuity-related Factors and Motorcycle Crash Severities in Daylight and Dark Conditions.” The report reviews previous studies on motorcycle conspicuity and then compares single-and two-vehicle crashes and examines the distribution of conspicuity-related factors in light and dark conditions. This paper identified those motorcycle-conspicuity factors
- [2010 - "Motorcycle Conspicuity: The Effects of Age and Vehicular Daytime Running Lights; Abstract"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2010-motorcycle-conspicuity-the-effects-of-age-and-vehicular-daytime-running-lights-abstract/) - This research investigated the topic of motorcycle conspicuity and the influence of sex, age, motorcycle lighting conditions, and vehicular daytime running lights upon one's ability to effectively detect a motorcycle within a "high fidelity" simulated environment.
- [2011 - "Evaluation of Motorcycle Conspicuity in a Car DRL Environment"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-evaluation-of-motorcycle-conspicuity-in-a-car-drl-environment/) - Photographs representing complex urban traffic scenes were displayed to 24 participants who were asked to detect vulnerable road users (motorcyclists, bicyclists, pedestrians) appearing at different locations and distances. Car DRLs noticeably hampered motorcycle perception compared to conditions where car lights were not on, especially when the motorcycle was at a greater distance from the observer
- [2011 - "Motorcycle Conspicuity and the Effect of Auxiliary Forward Lighting"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-motorcycle-conspicuity-and-the-effect-of-auxiliary-forward-lighting/) - To determine whether the conspicuity of approaching motorcycles viewed in daylight may be improved by various forward lighting treatments. Overall the results suggest that enhancing the frontal conspicuity of motorcycles with lighting treatments beyond an illuminated low beam headlamp may be an effective countermeasure for daytime crashes involving right-of-way violations.
- [2011 - "The Roles of Motorcyclists and Car Drivers in Conspicuity-Related Motorcycle Crashes"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2011-the-roles-of-motorcyclists-and-car-drivers-in-conspicuity-related-motorcycle-crashes/) - This report gives an overview of the available research on the different factors of influence on the perception of motorcycles. It also presents analyses of Dutch motorcycle crashes which provide a description of the relative occurrence of car -motorcycle crashes in the Netherlands. Finally, this report discusses possible measures that could help improve motorcycle conspicuity.
- [2012 - "Literature Review of Interventions to Improve the Conspicuity of Motorcyclists and Help Avoid 'looked but failed to see' Accidents"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2012-literature-review-of-interventions-to-improve-the-conspicuity-of-motorcyclists-and-help-avoid-looked-but-failed-to-see-accidents/) - New Zealand. Studies that have sought to examine the effectiveness of interventions to increase the conspicuity of motorcycles or motorcyclists (in lab studies, or in real world settings) were reviewed using a systematic approach to ensure that only relevant studies were included. In addition, studies were graded for scientific quality to ensure that any conclusions
- [2013 - "Motorcycle:  Crash Trends, Conspicuity and Interventions"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2013-motorcycle-crash-trends-conspicuity-and-interventions/) - For this study, motorcycle crashes in North Dakota are examined using crash data from 2002 to 2012. Additional information regarding motorcycle conspicuity and rider training and education is presented as a basis for efforts to guide crash prevention.
- [2015 - "Role of Motorcycle Running Lights in Reducing Motorcycle Crashes during Daytime; A Review of the Current Literature"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-role-of-motorcycle-running-lights-in-reducing-motorcycle-crashes-during-daytime-a-review-of-the-current-literature/) - This paper highlights previous studies on the implementation of motorcycle DRLs, focusing on the efficacy of the DRLs to improve motorcycle conspicuity. All literature, supporting that operating headlights during daytime appears to be an influential and effective approach to reduce rate of collision by improving motorcycle’s conspicuity in traffic.
- [2015 - "Increasing Motorcycle Conspicuity: Design and Assessment of Interventions to Enhance Rider Safety"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2015-increasing-motorcycle-conspicuity-design-and-assessment-of-interventions-to-enhance-rider-safety/) - This 258 page book contains extensive references and an overview of recent research. The book outlines the factors that contribute to PTW (Powered Two-Wheelers) visibility and detection by car drivers, and presents case studies to illustrate how the various methods can be used to explore the contribution of these factors. The case studies collected within
- [1999 - "Rolling Stoned: Experiments in Riding Drunk"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/1999-rolling-stoned-experiments-in-riding-drunk/) - What happens when friends let friends ride drunk. Magazine staff were plied with liquor and then put on motorcycles. From the April 1999 issue of Motorcycle Cruiser Magazine, Posted 2009.
- [2003 - "Drinking, Riding and Prevention: A Focus Group Study"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2003-drinking-riding-and-prevention-a-focus-group-study/) - To identify effective prevention and intervention approaches, focus groups across the United States. The findings indicate that (1) riders often discourage their peers from riding after drinking, but a culturally reinforced respect for rider freedom and individual responsibility set boundaries for peer actions; (2) rider concern for the safety and security of the motorcycle nearly always
- [2007 - "Crash Risk and Alcohol Impairment Vol. II: Literature Review Report"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2007-crash-risk-and-alcohol-impairment-vol-ii-literature-review-report/) - The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration sponsored a project (DOT HS 810 762) to investigate alternative methodological approaches for determining: (1) the relative risk of alcohol impaired motorcycle riders being involved in a crash and, (2) rider impairment at different BAC levels. The results of this project are reported in two volumes. This is Volume
- [2007 - "Crash Risk and Alcohol Impairment Vol. I: Synthesis Report on Alternative Approaches with Priorities for Research"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2007-crash-risk-and-alcohol-impairment-vol-i-synthesis-report-on-alternative-approaches-with-priorities-for-research/) - This report (DOT HS 810 761) summarizes the project findings; including a detailed account of information discussed at an expert panel workshop convened for this project (experts were provided the literature review). Among the topics discussed at the workshop were the advantages, disadvantages, scientific validity, and costs related to each alternative methodology.
- [2007 - "Effects of Alcohol on Motorcycle Riding Skills"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2007-effects-of-alcohol-on-motorcycle-riding-skills/) - This study demonstrates some changes in riding behavior in response to alcohol consumption that may be construed as impairment relative to standard performance and the self-assessment of riders. Most of the impairing effects on riding performance were evident at the per se alcohol limit of BAC .08. However, some of these same impairing effects were
- [2008 - "Effects of Alcohol on Motorcycle Riding Skills: Summary"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2008-effects-of-alcohol-on-motorcycle-riding-skills-summary/) - Traffic Safety Facts
- [2009 - "2007 National Roadside Survey of Alcohol and Drug Use by Drivers: Alcohol Results"](https://smarter-usa.org/study/2009-2007-national-roadside-survey-of-alcohol-and-drug-use-by-drivers-alcohol-results/) - The survey found that 5.6% of motorcycle riders on weekend nights had BACs of .08 or above, as compared to 2.3% of passenger vehicle drivers.

## TBMS

- [SMARTER Board Members](https://smarter-usa.org/tbms_cpt_name/smarter-board/)

## Categories

- [Research](https://smarter-usa.org/category/research/)
- [Alcohol](https://smarter-usa.org/category/alcohol/) - Alcohol Impairment
- [Conspicuity](https://smarter-usa.org/category/conspicuity/) - Conspicuity (HighViz)
- [Crash Causation & Outcomes](https://smarter-usa.org/category/crash-causation/) - Crash Causes & Injury Outcomes
- [Helmets & Laws](https://smarter-usa.org/category/helmets-laws/) - Helmet and Helmet Law Effectiveness
- [Lane Splitting](https://smarter-usa.org/category/lane-splitting/)
- [Licensing](https://smarter-usa.org/category/licensing/)
- [Motorist Awareness](https://smarter-usa.org/category/motorist-awareness/) - Motorist Awareness (awareness of motorcyclists by other drivers)
- [Overviews](https://smarter-usa.org/category/overviews/)
- [Protective Gear](https://smarter-usa.org/category/protective-gear/) - Full Protective Outer Gear
- [Roadway Engineering](https://smarter-usa.org/category/roadway-engineering/)
- [Training](https://smarter-usa.org/category/training/)
- [Barriers](https://smarter-usa.org/category/roadway-engineering/barriers/)
- [Engineering & Infrastructure, Blackspot and Rumble Strips](https://smarter-usa.org/category/roadway-engineering/engineering-infrastructure-blackspot-and-rumble-strips/)
- [Crash Injury Outcome](https://smarter-usa.org/category/crash-causation/crash-injury-outcome/)
- [Brain & Head Injury](https://smarter-usa.org/category/helmets-laws/brain-and-head-injury/)
- [Economic Impacts](https://smarter-usa.org/category/helmets-laws/economic-impacts/)
- [Helmet Effectiveness](https://smarter-usa.org/category/helmets-laws/helmet-effectiveness/)
- [Helmet Law Effectiveness](https://smarter-usa.org/category/helmets-laws/helmet-law-effectiveness/)
- [Impact of Repeal](https://smarter-usa.org/category/helmets-laws/impact-of-repeal/)
- [Spine Injury](https://smarter-usa.org/category/helmets-laws/spine-injury/)
- [Standards and Testing](https://smarter-usa.org/category/helmets-laws/standards-and-testing/)
- [Helmet Type/Style](https://smarter-usa.org/category/helmets-laws/helmet-type-style/)
- [News Releases](https://smarter-usa.org/category/news-releases/)
- [Other News Sources](https://smarter-usa.org/category/other-news-sources/)
- [Arguments and Issues](https://smarter-usa.org/category/helmets-laws/helmet-law-effectiveness/arguments-and-issues/)
- [Design](https://smarter-usa.org/category/design/)
- [Equipment](https://smarter-usa.org/category/equipment/)
- [Perception](https://smarter-usa.org/category/research/perception/) - perception, attention, inattentional blindness
- [Rider Behavior](https://smarter-usa.org/category/rider-behavior/) - Rider Behavior